REACTIVE POWER

COMPENSATION
Compiled by
Dr.P.S.Subramanyam
Professor Emeritus ,
VBIT , Hyderabad
 Reactive Power and Voltage Control
 Control objectives contributing to efficient and reliable
operation of power system:
• Voltage at terminals of all equipment are within acceptable
limits
– both utility and customer equipment designed to operate
at certain voltage rating
– prolonged operation outside allowable range could cause
them damage
System stability is satisfactory
– voltage levels and reactive power control have significant
impact on stability
The reactive power flow is minimized so as to reduce I 2R
and I 2X losses to a practical minimum
– ensures transmission system operates efficiently 2
 Production and Absorption of Reactive
Power (Q)
 Synchronous Generators
– can generate or absorb Q depending on excitation
– capability limited by field current, armature current, and end-region
heating limits
– automatic voltage regulator continuously adjusts excitation to
control armature voltage
– primary source of voltage support!

• Overhead lines
– at loads below natural or surge impedance load (SIL), produce Q
– at loads above SIL, absorb Q

• Underground cables
– have high SIL due to high capacitance
– always loaded below SIL, and hence generate Q 3
 Production and Absorption of Q – contd.
 Transformers
– absorb Q due to shunt magnetizing reactance and
series leakage inductance
• Loads
– a typical "load bus" is composed of a large number of
devices
– composite characteristics are normally such that a
load bus absorbs Q
– industrial loads usually have shunt capacitors to
improve power factor
• As power flow conditions vary, reactive power
requirements of transmission network vary
• Since Q cannot be transmitted over long distances,
voltage control has to be effected using special devices
4
dispersed throughout the system
 Methods of Voltage Control
 Control of voltage levels is accomplished by
controlling the production, absorption, and flow
of reactive power at all levels in the system
• Generating units provide the basic means of voltage control

• Additional means are usually required to control voltage throughout

the system:
– sources or sinks of reactive power, such as shunt capacitors,
shunt reactors, synchronous condensers, and static var
compensators (SVCs)
– line reactance compensators, such as series capacitors

– regulating transformers, such as tap-changing transformers and

boosters 5
 Methods of Voltage Control (cont'd)
 Shunt capacitors and reactors, and series capacitors
provide passive compensation
• are either permanently connected to the transmission and
distribution system, or switched
• contribute to voltage control by modifying the network
characteristics
 Synchronous condensers and SVCs provide active
compensation; the reactive power absorbed/ supplied
by them are automatically adjusted so as to maintain
voltages of the buses to which they are connected
– together with the generating units, they establish voltages at
specific points in the system
– voltages at other locations in the system are determined by
active and reactive power flows through various circuit elements,
including the passive compensating devices
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 Objectives of Reactive Power
Compensation
• To control voltage and/or improve maximum power
transfer capability
• Achieved by modifying effective line parameters:

– characteristic impedance,

– electrical length, θ = βl

• The voltage profile is determined by ZC

• The maximum power that can be transmitted depends
on ZC as well as β
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 Shunt Reactors
• Used to compensate the undesirable voltage effects
associated with line capacitance
– limit voltage rise on open circuit or light load
• Shunt compensation with reactors:
– increases effective ZC
– reduces the effective natural load , i.e., voltage at
which flat voltage profile is achieved
• They are connected either:
– directly to the lines at the ends, or
– to transformer tertiary windings; conveniently
switched as var requirements vary
• Line reactors assist in limiting switching surges
• In very long lines, at least some reactors are required to
be connected to lines 8
 Shunt Capacitors
• Used in transmission systems to compensate for I 2X losses
• Connected either directly to H.V. bus or to tertiary winding of
transformers
• Normally distributed throughout the system so as to minimize losses
and voltage drops
• Usually switched: a convenient means of controlling voltage
• Shunt capacitor compensation of transmission lines in effect
– decreases ZC
– increases θ, i.e., electrical length
• Advantages: low cost and flexibility of installation and operating
• Disadvantages: Q output is proportional to square of the voltage;
hence Q output reduced at low voltages

• Shunt capacitors are used extensively in distribution systems for

power factor correction and feeder voltage control

9
 Series Capacitors
• Connected in series with the line
• Used to reduce effective inductive reactance of line
– increases maximum power
– reduces I 2X loss
• Series capacitive compensation in effect reduces both:
– characteristic impedance ZC, and
– electrical length θ
• Reactive power produced increases with increasing
power transfer
– Self regulating !
• Typical applications
– improve power transfer compatibility
– alter load division among parallel lines
– voltage regulation 10
 ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM
 The part of the power system which distributes power to
consumers is known as Electrical Distribution system. It
generally consists of feeders, distributors and the service
mains.

 In general most of the distribution systems are of Radial type

because of low cost and simple design. It comprises separate
feeders ’radiating’ out of the sub-station or source, each
feeder usually serves a given area.

REQUIREMENTS
A. Voltage profile maintenance
B. Power factor improvement
c. Power loss reduction
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 A) VOLTAGE PROFILE MAINTENANCE
• One important requirement in distribution systems is that
voltage variations at consumer’s terminals should be as low
as possible. For example the statutory limit of voltage
variations is ±6% (244V or 216V) of the rated value at the
consumer’s terminals.
• Low voltage causes loss of revenue, inefficient lighting and
possible burning out of motors.
• High voltage causes lamps to burn out permanently and
may cause failure of other appliances.

B) POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

 The cosine of the angle between current and sending end
voltage is known as the power factor of the circuit.
 Lower the power factor, higher is the load current
because of this KVA requirement and losses increases.
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 C) LOSSES IN DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

 Transmission losses and distribution losses are as high

as 10 to 15 percent of total power generation.

 The challenge is more pronounced in the case of

distribution systems, the basic reason behind these
huge power losses being resistive loss, as well as
operation of distribution systems at much lower
voltages as compared to prescribed system voltage.

 So, in totality, we can say that, optimal operation of a

distribution networks has become an Engineering
challenge.

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 IMPROVEMENTS IN DISTRIBUTION
PROFILE
 Placement of capacitors causes improvement of
voltage profile, power factor correction and loss
reduction for the same load.
 FACTS (Flexible A.C.Transmission System)
are used improving Voltage Profile , Loss
Reduction ,Power Factor Improvement and
Increasing the Efficiency of Power Utilization in
Distribution Systems.

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 WHY ONLY CAPACITOR?

 Capacitors are generally used for reactive power

compensation in distribution systems.

 Capacitor is a simple device, can be installed easily.

 Maintenance cost of the capacitor is also less when

compared to other devices.

 Energy loss reduction, voltage profile improvement

and power factor correction can be obtained by the
optimal allocation of capacitors.

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OPTIMAL CAPACITOR PLACEMENT
PROBLEM

 Optimal Capacitor placement problem (OCP):

The Capacitor Placement Problem in Distribution

System is a big challenge since it involves the
determination of the actual size and location of
the capacitors to minimize the losses, improving
the voltage profile and the power factor in the
distribution system.

16
Power Triangles for Inductive and
Capacitive Loads

17
 DISADVANTAGES OF LOW POWER
FACTOR

• Poor power factors (lag or lead) are typically due

to the effect of inductive or capacitive loads such
as with a motor or with long cables providing
capacitive coupling.

• Poor power factor is also due to distorted current

waveforms such as with high harmonic content
caused by electronic equipment, converters or
inverters etc. Disadvantages of low power factor
18
 DISADVANTAGES OF LOW POWER
FACTOR – Contd.
• Large KVA rating of equipment:
 The electrical machinery is always rated in
KVA rating of the equipment is inversely
proportional to the power factor. The
 Smaller the power factor, the larger is the
KVA rating. Therefore, at low power factor,
the KVA rating of the equipment has to be
more, making the equipment larger and
expensive. 19
 DISADVANTAGES OF LOW POWER
FACTOR – Contd.
• KVA=KW/(cosФ)
• Greater conductor size:
• To transmit or distribute a fixed amount of
power at
• constant voltage, the conductor will have
to carry more
• current at low power factor. Because of
this the conductor
• size increases. 20
 DISADVANTAGES OF LOW POWER
FACTOR – Contd.
• Large copper losses:
 The large current at low power factor
causes more I2 R losses in all the elements
of the supply system. This results in poor
efficiency.
• Poor voltage regulation:
 The large current at low lagging power
factor causes greater voltage drops in
alternators, transformers, transmission
lines and distributors. 21
 DISADVANTAGES OF LOW POWER
FACTOR – Contd.

• Reduced Power handling capacity of

system:
 The lagging power factor reduces the
Power handling capacity of all the
elements of the system. It is because the
reactive component of the current
prevents the complete utilization of the
installed capacity.
22
 BENEFITS OF POWER FACTOR
CORRECTION
 Environmental benefit.
 Reduction of power consumption due to
improved energy efficiency that means
less greenhouse gas emissions and fossil
fuel depletion by power stations.
 Reduction of electricity bills.
 Reduction of KVA required supplying the
load.
23
 BENEFITS OF POWER FACTOR
CORRECTION – Contd.

 Reduction of I2 R losses in transformers

and distribution equipment.
 Reduction of voltage drops in long cables.
 Extended equipment life – Reduced
electrical burden on cables and electrical
components.
 Electricity tariff savings.
24
 BENEFITS OF POWER FACTOR
CORRECTION – Contd.
 Avoidance of Network Service Provider (NSP)
penalties for low power factor, including
restricted access to more suitable tariffs.
 Reduce power drawn from distribution systems,
optimum sizing of electrical infrastructure.
 Stabilized voltage levels by reducing the
inductive effect of the connected load. The
payback for PFC (Power factor correction)
installations can be very reasonable and
should not be over
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POWERFACTOR CORRECTION
As illustrated in figure, capacitors draw
leading reactive power from the source;
that is, they supply lagging reactive power
to the load. When a shunt capacitor of Qc
is installed at the load, the power factor
can be improved

26
POWERFACTOR CORRECTION – Contd.
 The power factor correction produces economic
savings in capital expenditures and fuel
expenses through a release of kilovolt ampere
capacity. The economic power factor is the point
at which the economic benefits of adding shunt
capacitors just equals the cost of capacitors.
 CAUTION :
In trying to Improve the PF it should not go from Laging
P.F. to Leading P.F. as such a situation will lead to poor
P.F Condition again. Improvement can be done upto only
near Unity Power Factor at the Maxium.
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POWERFACTOR CORRECTION – Contd.

28
 Flexible AC transmission system
has been (FACTS)
 The basic idea of FACTs is installing the
power electronic devices at the high-
voltage side of the power grid to make the
whole system electronically controllable.
 The advances achieved in high power
semiconductor devices and control
technology makes the foundation of the
development of FACTs.
29
 Flexible AC transmission system has
been (FACTS) – Contd.
 The FACTs devices are able to provide active and
reactive power to the power grid rapidly. The power
compensation achieved by FACTs devices could adjust
the voltage of the whole system and the power flow
could be controlled.
 FACTS devices are used to improve power quality and
preferred for Power Transmission systems, but they are
expensive to provide
compensation when compared to common capacitor.
This is due to additional cost, including filters to reduce
the associated injection of undesirable harmonic currents
into the grid.
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 Flexible AC transmission system has been
(FACTS) – Contd.
• First Generation of FACTS Controllers:
 Staic Var Compensator (SVC), Thyristor Controlled
Series Capacitor (TCSC), and Thyristor Controlled
Phase Shifting Transformer (TCPST)
• Second Generation of FACTS Controllers:
 The following FACTS controllers such as Static
Synchronous
• Compensator (STATCOM), Static Synchronous Series
Compensator
• (SSSC), Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC), and
Interline Power
• Flow Controller (IPFC) 31
 METHODS FOR SWITCHING OF
CAPACITORS
 Mechanically-switched capacitor (MSC):
• capacitor is switched by circuit-breaker. It aims
at compensating steady state reactive power. It
is switched only a few times a day. Circuit
breakers are designed for Capacitor Current
Switching. In this case the capacitors are
switched On or Off Only when they are required.
This causes minimum of Harmonic
Disturbances.
32
METHODS FOR SWITCHING OF
CAPACITORS – Contd.

33
 METHODS FOR SWITCHING OF
CAPACITORS – Contd.
 Thyristor-switched capacitor (TSC):
• Capacitor is connected in series with a
bidirectional thyristor valve. Thyristor is either in
zero- or full- conduction. Equivalent reactance is
varied in stepwise manner.
• As Thyristor Switched Capacitor making the
Firing Angles Capacitor is connected in series
with a bidirectional thyristor valve. Thyristor is
either in zero- or full- conduction. Equivalent
reactance is varied in stepwise manner.
34
 METHODS FOR SWITCHING OF
CAPACITORS – Contd.
• As theThyristor Switched Capacitor making the
Firing Angles 00 and 1800 only to conduct
Positive and Negative half Cycles only when
required.
• The Switching Harmonics will be less because
the resulting current will be Sinusoidal and not in
Pulses. and 1800 only to conduct Positive and
Negative half Cycles only when required.
• The Switching Harmonics will be less because
the resulting current will be Sinusoidal and not in
Pulses.
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 METHODS FOR SWITCHING OF
CAPACITORS – Contd.
 STATIC VAR COMPENSATOR (SVC)
• A Static Var Compensator (SVC) is a shunt connected
static var generator or absorber whose output is adjusted
to exchange capacitive or inductive current to maintain
or control specific parameters of the electrical power
system (typically, the bus voltage).
• Typical SVCs can be classified on Thyristor-Controlled
Reactor
• (TCR), Thyristor-Switched Reactor (TSR) or Thyristor-
switched capacitors (TSCs).

36
 Static VAR Compensators (SVC)
• Shunt connected static var generators and/or absorbers whose outputs
are varied so as to control specific power system quantities

• The term static is used to denote that there are no moving or rotating
components

• Basic types of SVCs:

– thyristor-controlled reactor

– thyristor-switched capacitor

– saturated reactor

• A static var system (SVS) is an aggregation of SVCs and mechanically

switched capacitors or reactors whose outputs are coordinated

• When operating at its capacitive limit, an SVC behaves like a simple

capacitor 37
 Static Synchronous Compensator
(STATCOM)
• Can be based on a voltage-sourced or current-sourced
converter
• Figure below shows one with voltage-sourced converter
– driven by a dc voltage source: capacitor
Effectively an alternating voltage source behind a
coupling reactance
– controllable in magnitude
• Can be operated over its full output current range even
at very low (typically 0.2 pu) system voltage levels
• Requires fewer harmonic filters and capacitors than an
SVC, and no reactors
– significantly more compact
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STATCOM

39
Comparison of STATCOM and SVC Characteristics

(a) V-I characteristics:

Source: N.G. Hingorani and L. Gyugi, "Understanding FACTS", IEEE Press, 1999
 METHODS FOR SWITCHING OF
CAPACITORS – Contd.

• The shunt reactor is dynamically controlled from

a minimum value (practically zero) to a
maximum value by means of conduction control
of the by-directional thyristor valves. By this
controlled action the SVC can be seen as a
variable shunt reactance established by the
parallel connection of the shunt capacitive
reactance XC and the effective inductive
reactance XL controlled by the Thyristor
switching.
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 METHODS FOR SWITCHING OF
CAPACITORS – Contd.
• Thyristor switched (Variable) capacitor :
This arrangement introduces lot of Switching
Harmonics that are to be mitigated like making
use of a combined system of shunt and active
series filters like unified power quality
conditioner (UPQC).

42
 combination of series and shunt capacitors
• Switched shunt capacitor compensation generally provides the most
economical reactive power source for voltage control
– ideally suited for compensation transmission lines if reduction of ZC,
rather than reduction of line length θ is the primary consideration
– however, heavy use of shunt capacitor compensation could result in
poor voltage regulation and may have an adverse effect on system
stability

• Series capacitor is self-regulating, i.e., its reactive power output

increases with line loading
– ideally suited for applications where reduction of line length (θ) is
the primary consideration
– improves voltage regulation and system stability

• A combination of series and shunt capacitors may provide the ideal

form of compensation in some cases 43
Unified power quality conditioner (UPQC)

44
 UPQC – Contd.
• Mainly there are three significant control
approaches for UPQC can be found to control the
sag on the system:
 1) Active power control approach in which an in-
phase voltage is injected through series inverter,
popularly known as UPQC-P;
 2) Reactive power control approach in which a
quadrature voltage is injected, known as UPQC-Q;
 3) A minimum VA loading approach in which a
series voltage is injected at a certain angle, which is
known as VAmin. The VA loading in UPQC-Vamin
determined on the basis of voltage sag, may not be
at optimal value. 45
 UPQC – Contd.
• UNIFIED POWER QUALITY CONDITIONER
UPQC is the integration of series (APFse) and
shunt (APFsh) active
The series component of power filters, connected back-to-back on the
dc side, sharing a the UPQC is responsible for mitigation of the supply
side disturbances: voltage sags/swells, flicker, voltage unbalance and
harmonics. It inserts voltages so as to maintain the load voltages at a
desired level; balanced and distortion free. The shunt component is
responsible for mitigating the current quality problems caused by the
consumer: poor power factor, load harmonic currents, load unbalance
etc. It injects currents in the ac system such that the source currents
become balanced sinusoids and in phase with the source voltages.
The overall function of UPQC mainly depends on the series and shunt
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 REFERENCES
 Selection & Applications Of Power Factor Correction Capacitor
For Industrial and Large Commercial Users

Ben Banerjee
Power Quality Solution Group

 Ph.D. Thesis
INTELLIGENT MINIMAL ALLOCATION OF
CAPACITORS FOR COMPENSATION IN RADIAL
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

Of
Prof. S Neelima ,
H.O.D. , EEE , VBIT, Hyderabad

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ANY QUERRIES ?
Dr.P.S.Subramayam

Ph (Res) : 040-23306999 ; 040-

40177929

Mobile: 9989126669

Email: [email protected] ;
[email protected]
THANK YOU

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