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Lecture 2

The document discusses various aspects of antenna radiation patterns and performance. It defines that antennas are interfaces between transmission lines and space, and are passive devices where radiated power cannot exceed input power. Radiation patterns describe the antenna's directivity and how power is distributed in different directions. Key metrics discussed include beamwidth, pattern solid angle, directivity, efficiency and gain. Far-field patterns are independent of distance and indicate the antenna's ability to concentrate power in preferred directions.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
72 views40 pages

Lecture 2

The document discusses various aspects of antenna radiation patterns and performance. It defines that antennas are interfaces between transmission lines and space, and are passive devices where radiated power cannot exceed input power. Radiation patterns describe the antenna's directivity and how power is distributed in different directions. Key metrics discussed include beamwidth, pattern solid angle, directivity, efficiency and gain. Far-field patterns are independent of distance and indicate the antenna's ability to concentrate power in preferred directions.

Uploaded by

NurulAnisAhmad
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Introduction

• The antenna is the interface between the transmission


line and space
• Antennas are passive devices; the power radiated
cannot be greater than the power entering from the
transmitter
• When speaking of gain in an antenna, gain refers to the
idea that certain directions are radiated better than
others
• Antennas are reciprocal - the same design works for
receiving systems as for transmitting systems
Simple Antennas
• The Isotropic Radiator would radiate all the
power delivered to it and equally in all
directions
• The isotropic radiator would also be a point
source
Antennas
• Radiated Power
• Radiation Pattern
– Beamwidth
– Pattern Solid Angle
– Directivity
– Efficiency
– Gain
Antennas – Radiation Power
Let us consider a transmitting antenna (transmitter) is located at the origin of a
spherical coordinate system.
In the far-field, the radiated waves resemble plane waves propagating in the
radiation direction and time-harmonic fields can be related by the equations.
E s  o a r  H s
Electric and and
Magnetic Fields:
1
Hs  a r  Es
o

The time-averaged power density vector of the wave is found by


the Poynting Theorem
1
Power Density: P  r ,  ,    Re  E s  H*s 
2
P  r ,  ,    P  r ,  ,   ar

The total power radiated by the antenna is found by integrating over a closed
spherical surface,
Radiated Power: Prad   P  r ,  ,   dS    P  r ,  ,   r 2 sin  d d
EM wave in free space

 2 Ex 1  2 Ex
 E x  E0 e j (t  z )
t 2  0 0 z 2

 Hy
H y  H 0 e j ( t   z )
1  Hy
2 2


t 2  0 0 z 2

frequency f 
2
x Electric

1
field wavelength
 0 0 f
Direction of 2
Phase constant 
propagation 

y z Z0 
E0 0
Z0 
Magnetic H0 0
field
Wave in lossy medium

E x  E0 e z e jt  E0  e z  e  jz  e jt

Attenuation Phase varies Periodic time


increases with z with z variation

    j Propagation constant

 Attenuation constant

 Phase constant
Power flow

  
Poynting vector S  EH

Average power density 1 2 1 1 2


S av  E x  H y Z0
2 Z0 2
Radiation pattern

•Far field patterns


•Field intensity decreases with increasing distance, as 1/r
•Radiated power density decreases as 1/r2
•Pattern (shape) independent on distance
•Usually shown only in principal planes

D2
Far field : r  2 D : largest dimension of the antenna

e.g. r > 220 km for APEX at 1.3 mm !
Antennas – Radiation Patterns
Radiation patterns usually indicate either electric field intensity or power
intensity. Magnetic field intensity has the same radiation pattern as the
electric field intensity, related by o

It is customary to divide the field or power component by its


maximum value and to plot a normalized function

Normalized radiation intensity:

P  r, ,  
Pn   ,   
Pmax

Isotropic antenna: The antenna radiates


electromagnetic waves equally in all directions.

Pn   ,   iso  1
Antennas – Radiation Patterns
Radiation Pattern: A polar plot
A directional antenna radiates and receives
preferentially in some direction.

It is customary, then, to take slices of the


pattern and generate two-dimensional plots.

The polar plot can also be in terms of decibels.

E  r, ,   A rectangular plot


En   ,   
Emax

En   ,    dB   20 log  En   ,   

It is interesting to note that a normalized electric


field pattern in dB will be identical to the power
pattern in dB.

Pn   ,    dB   10 log  Pn   ,   
Radiation
Pattern
Polar plot
• Whenever we speak of
radiation patterns, we
normally mean we are at a
distance far enough from
the antenna known as the
far field.

dB= 10 log Pn(θ,Φ) or,


dB= 20 log En(θ,Φ)
Radiation pattern (2)

Field patterns

E ( ,  ) E ( ,  )
+ phase patterns
 ( ,  )  ( ,  )

E2 ( ,  )  E2 ( ,  )
P ( ,  )  r2
Z0

P ( ,  )
Pn ( ,  ) 
P ( ,  ) max
HPBW: half power beam width
Antennas
Antenna Pattern Solid Angle:

A differential solid angle, d, in sr, is


defined as
d   sin  d d .
For a sphere, the solid angle is found by A radian is defined with the aid of Figure a). It is the
angle subtended by an arc along the perimeter of the
integrating circle with length equal to the radius.
2  A steradian may be defined using Figure (b). Here,
   sin  d d  4 ( sr ). one steradian (sr) is subtended by an area r2 at the
surface of a sphere of radius r.
  0  0

An antenna’s pattern solid angle,

 p    Pn   ,   d 

All of the radiation emitted by the antenna is concentrated in a cone of solid


angle p over which the radiation is constant and equal to the antenna’s
maximum radiation value.
Antennas – Directivity
Directivity:

The directive gain,, of an antenna is the ratio of the


normalized power in a particular direction to the
average normalized power, or
Pn   ,  
D   ,  
Pn   ,   avg

Where the normalized power’s average value taken


over the entire spherical solid angle is

  P   ,  d  
P   ,  
n p

  d
n avg
4

The directivity, Dmax, is the maximum directive gain,


Pn   ,   max
Dmax  D   ,   max 
Pn   ,   avg
4
Dmax  Using Pn   ,   max  1
p
Resolution and Directivity
• Half-power beamwidth (HPBW) is the angle between two vectors
from the pattern’s origin to the points of the major lobe where the
radiation intensity is half its maximum
• Often used to describe the antenna resolution properties

• First-null beamwidth (FNBW) is the angle between two vectors,


originating at the pattern’s origin and tangent to the main beam at its
base.
• Directivity and resolution: Usually resolution of an antenna is it`s half
the BW between first nulls.
» Often FNBW/2 ≈ Resolution and it is approximately equal to HPBW
• So, ΩA = ( FNBW/2)θ ( FNBW/2)φ two plane of the field
• If N number of point source, the receiving antenna can resolve, N= 4Π/ ΩA,
• Directivity, D= 4Π/ ΩA, so number of point source in the sky is equal to directivity of the
antenna.
Beam area and beam efficiency
2 
Beam area A    Pn ( ,  )  sin( )dd   Pn ( ,  )d
0 0
4

Main beam area M   P ( ,  )d


Main
n

beam

Minor lobes area m   P ( ,  )d


min or
n

lobes

 A  M  m

M
Main beam efficiency M 
A
Effective aperture and aperture efficiency

Receiving antenna extracts power from incident wave

Prec  Sin  Ae

2
Aperture and beam area are linked: Ae 
A

For some antennas, there is a clear physical aperture


and an aperture efficiency can be defined

Ae
 ap 
Ap
Directivity and gain

P( ,  ) max
Directivity D
P( ,  ) average

4 4
From pattern D 
 P ( , )d
4
n
A

Ae
From aperture D  4 Isotropic antenna:  A  4 D 1
2

Gain G  k g D

n  efficiency factor (0  n  1)
G is lower than D due to ohmic losses only
Radiation resistance
• Antenna presents an impedance at its terminals

Z A  RA  jX A

•Resistive part is radiation resistance plus loss resistance

R A  RR  RL

The radiation resistance does not correspond to a real resistor


present in the antenna but to the resistance of space coupled
via the beam to the antenna terminals.
The Half-Wave Dipole
• A more practical antenna is the half-wave
dipole
• Dipole simply means it is in two parts
• A dipole does not have to be one-half
wavelength, but that length is handy for
impedance matching
• A half-wave dipole is sometimes referred to
as a Hertz antenna
Basics of the Half-Wave Dipole

• Typically, the length of a half-wave dipole is 95% of


one-half the wavelength measured in free space:
c

f
Radiation Resistance
• The half-wave dipole does not dissipate power,
assuming lossless material
• It will radiate power into space
• The effect on the feedpoint resistance is the same as if a
loss had taken place
• The half-wave dipole looks like a resistance of 70 ohms
at its feedpoint
• The portion of an antenna’s input impedance that is due
to power radiated into space is known as radiation
resistance
Antenna Characteristics
• It should be apparent that antennas radiate in
various directions
• The terms applied to isotropic and half-wave
dipole antennas are also applied to other
antenna designs
Radiation Patterns

• Antenna coordinates are shown


in three-dimensional diagrams
• The angle  is measured from
the x axis in the direction of the
y axis
• The z axis is vertical, and angle
 is usually measured from the
horizontal plane to the zenith
Plotting Radiation Patterns

• Typical radiation patters are displayed in a polar plot


Gain and Directivity

• In antennas, power
gain in one direction
is at the expense of
losses in others
• Directivity is the gain
calculated assuming
a lossless antenna
Beamwidth
• A directional antenna can be said to direct a
beam of radiation in one or more directions
• The width of this bean is defined as the angle
between its half-power points
• A half-wave dipole has a beamwidth of about
79º in one plane and 360º in the other
• Many antennas are far more directional than this
Front-to-Back Ratio

• The direction of maximum


radiation is in the
horizontal plane is
considered to be the front
of the antenna, and the
back is the direction 180º
from the front
• For a dipole, the front and
back have the same
radiation, but this is not
always the case
Major and Minor Lobes

• In the previous diagram, the antenna has one


major lobe and a number of minor ones
• Each of these lobes has a gain and a
beamwidth which can be found using the
diagram
Effective Isotropic Radiated Power
and Effective Radiated Power
• In practical situations, we are more interested in the
power emitted in a particular direction than in total
radiated power
• Effective Radiated Power represents the power input
multiplied by the antenna gain measured with respect to
a half-wave dipole
• An Ideal dipole has a gain of 2.14 dBi; EIRP is 2.14 dB
greater than the ERP for the same antenna combination
Impedance
• The radiation resistance of a half-wave dipole situated in
free space and fed at the center is approximately 70 ohms
• The impedance is completely resistive at resonance, which
occurs when the length of the antenna is about 95% of the
calculated free-space, half-wavelength value
• If the frequency is above resonance, the feedpoint
impedance has an inductive component; if the frequency is
below resonance, the component is capacitive
Ground Effects
• When an antenna is installed within
a few wavelengths of the ground,
the earth acts as a reflector and
has a considerable influence on the
radiation pattern of the antenna
• Ground effects are important up
through the HF range. At VHF and
above, the antenna is usually far
enough above the earth that
reflections are not significant
• Ground effects are complex
because the characteristics of the
ground are variable
Other Simple Antennas
• Other types of simple antennas are:
– The folded dipole
– The monopole antenna
– Loop antennas
– The five-eighths wavelength antenna
– The Discone antenna
– The helical antenna
Example
8.1: In free space, suppose a wave propagating radially away from an antenna
at the origin has
Is
Hs  sin  a
r
where the driving current phasor I s  I o e j
Find (1) Es
o I s
 
Is Is
E s  o a r  H s   o a r  sin  a   o sin  a r  a sin  a
r r r

Find (2) P(r,,)


1 1   o I s   Is  
*

P  r ,  ,    Re  E s  H   Re 
*
s
sin  a    sin  a  
2 2  r  r  

1   o I o e j
  Ioe j

*
 1   I e j   I o e  j 
 Re  sin  a    sin  a    Re  o o
sin  a    sin  a 
2  r   r   2  r   r 
 I o2 2  1 I o2
 Re o 2 sin   a  a    o 2 sin 2  a r
1 1 I o2
Magnitude: P  r ,  ,    o 2 sin 
2
2  r  2 r 2 r
Find (3) Prad

Prad   P  r ,  ,   dS    P  r ,  ,   r 2 sin  d d We make use of the formula


 1 I o2 2 cos3 
 sin  d   cos   3
3
Prad     o 2 sin 2  r sin  d d
2 r 
 
1 I 2
2   cos3  
0 sin  d    cos   3 
3
Prad   o    sin  d d
o 3
2
2 r 0 0 0

 cos3    cos 3 0  
 1 I o2    3   2     cos       cos 0  
Prad   o 2    sin  d    d  3 3 
  
 2 r  0  0 
 1   1  2 4
 1 I o2   4  4    1     1     2  
Prad   o 2     2    o I o  3   3  3 3
2

 2 r  3  3

Find (4) Pn(r,,) Normalized Power Pattern

1 I o2
P  r ,  ,    o 2 sin 2  1 I o2
2 r Pmax  o 2
2 r
P  r, , 
Pn   ,    Pn   ,    sin 2 
Pmax
Find (5) Beam Width
1 1
Pn   ,    sin 
2
 sin 2  HP sin  HP  
2 2
1 z
sin  HP 
2  HP ,1  45 Pn  0.5
 HP ,2  135
 HP ,1  45 and  HP ,2  135

Beamwidth  BW   135  45  90 BW  90

(6) Pattern Solid Angle Ωp (Integrate over the entire sphere!)


Pn  0.5
 p    Pn   ,   d 
2 
 3   2   4  8
 P   sin  sin  d d    sin  d d    sin  d    d      2  
2 3

0 0 0  0   3 3
(7) directivity Dmax
4 4 2
Dmax     1.5
 P 8 3
3
(8) Half-power Pattern Solid Angle Ωp,HP (Integrate over the beamwidth!)
 p , HP    Pn   ,   d 
2 135  135   2   5 

5 2
 P , HP   sin  sin  d d 
2
  sin  d d    sin  d
3 3
   d   
 0   2  
0 45  45    3 2  3

135
 cos  
3 
135
cos3 135       cos  
cos3 45  
3 

 sin  d   cos  3      cos 135  3   
 
45 

3


45 45    
z
 1 1   1 1  2 2 10 5
           
 2 6 2   2 6 2  2 6 2 6 2 3 2

Power radiated through the beam width


BW PBW = 88%
5 2
 P , HP 5 2
PBW   3   0.88 (or) 88%
P 8 8
3
Antennas – Efficiency
Efficiency

Power is fed to an antenna through a T-Line and


the antenna appears as a complex impedance
Z ant  Rant  jX ant .
where the antenna resistance consists of
radiation resistance and and a dissipative
resistance.
Rant  Rrad  Rdis
j
For the antenna is driven by phasor current I o  I s e

The power radiated by the antenna is The power dissipated by ohmic losses is
1 1 2
Prad  I o2 Rrad Pdiss  I o Rdiss
2 2
An antenna efficiency e can be defined as the ratio of the radiated power
to the total power fed to the antenna.
Prad Rrad
e 
Prad  Pdiss Rrad  Rdiss
Antennas – Gain
Gain

The power gain, G, of an antenna is very much like its directive gain, but
also takes into account efficiency

G   ,    eD   ,  

The maximum power gain

Gmax  eDmax

The maximum power gain is often expressed in dB.

Gmax  dB   10 log 10  Gmax 


Example
: Suppose an antenna has D = 4, Rrad = 40  and Rdiss = 10 . Find antenna
efficiency and maximum power gain. (Ans: e = 0.80, Gmax = 3.2).

Antenna efficiency
Rrad 40
e   0.8 (or) 80%
Rrad  Rdiss 10  40

Maximum power gain


Gmax  eDmax   4   0.8   3.2

Maximum power gain in dB


Gmax  dB   10 log 10  Gmax   10 log 10  3.2   5.05

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