THE COPULATIVE

PREDICATION
 Examples
(a)The room is quiet.
(b) She will make a good mother.
(c) Peter is of my age.
(d) The problem is to do it correctly.
(e) The idea is that you should never agree to
such things.
(f) They could become famous.
 Copulas
• the copula BE allows the full range of
predicatives (AP, DP, PP, IP, CP)
• other copula-like verbs allow only a limited
number of possibilities
e.g. She will make a wonderful actress.
* She will make happy.
* She will become of my age.
 The copula and the subject
• the predicative, not the copula, assigns a
property to the subject
e.g. Mary is assigned the property quiet

• the predication relation holds between the

subject and the predicative, and not between
the subject and the copula
e.g. * Bill is a spinster. / * Susan is a good boy.
 The predicative and the subject
• the property assigned by the predicative to
the subject violates the s-selection (semantic
selection)
e.g. spinster selects a [+female] entity, while boy
selects a [+male] entity

• the subject of the sentence is assigned a theta

role and so is an argument of the predicative,
not of the copula BE
 Arguments of the copula
• the copula does not have an external argument
• it only has an internal argument: a small clause
• the subject of the sentence is base-generated in
[Spec,SC] position where it is assigned a theta
role by the predicative
• it moves to [Spec,IP] to be assigned case and also
to satisfy the EPP (which says that all sentences
must have a subject)
Movement of the subject
 Conclusions on the copula
• copula Be is a raising verb taking a small
clause as its complement: (i) lacks an external
argument, (ii) fails to assign case to its
complement, (iii) does not assign a theta role

• an unaccusative verb which selects a SC (small

clause)

• semantically light, just like an auxiliary

 Copulas and auxiliaries
• Features shared:
i. both undergo movement to I0
ii. both move to C0 in question formation
iii. both are directly negated by not/n’t
iv. both can be stressed by emphatic
affirmations
v. both occur in tags and codas
vi. both precede the adverbs
 Examples

i. Are they students?

ii. They are not/aren’t students.
iii. Oh, but they ARE students.
iv. They are students, aren’t they?
v. They are students, and so are their friends.
vi. They are never rude to anyone.
 Copula-like verbs (1)
If you work hard, you will make a good lawyer.(DP)

The scheme fell flat.(AP)

He fell victim to her cruel remarks.(NP)
She fell an easy prey to him.(DP)
The house fell into ruins.(PP)

The books lay open on the table.(AP)

Leaves lay thick on the ground.(AP)
 Copula-like verbs (2)
The argument holds true.(AP)
She always holds aloof from company.(AP)

Tom stands alone among his mates.(AP)

We will stand firm.(AP)
Jane stood godmother to her sister’s child.(NP)
Those poor people stand in need of help.(PP)

He remained a widower at the age of 30.(DP)

 Copula-like verbs (3)
The sink got rusty.(AP)
He has grown old.(AP)
He finally turned a traitor. (DP)
They obliged the prisoners to turn Muslim. (AP)
They pass for rich.(PP)
He passed for a doctor.(PP)
The students seem interested in linguistics. (AP)
The knot has come undone.(AP)
 Properties of copula-like verbs
• preserve part of their lexical meaning (durative –
stay, remain; inchoative –become, get)

• impose certain selectional restrictions on the SC

• do not combine with the full range of SC as BE

• do not raise, do not invert in question formation,

need do-support, are not negated by not/n’t,
need do-support, do not appear in tags and
codas
 Examples
i. They turned Muslim.
ii. *Turned they Muslim?/Did they turn
Muslim?
iii. *They TURNED Muslim./They DID turn
Muslim.
iv. *They turned not Muslim./They didn’t turn
Muslim.
v. *They turned Muslim, turnedn’t they?/They
turned Muslim, didn’t they?
 The Predicative: APs
• can be modified by an adverb in the Spec
position, can select a complement (PP, CP, IP),
can also contain adjuncts
e.g. rather envious of Mary’s success
extremely discontent that he was late

• may have an exclusively attributive or a

exclusively predicative use or both
e.g. Mary is beautiful. /I saw a beautiful woman.
 Predicative adjectives
• they behave like verbs in a number of ways,
but do not inflect for Tense and Agreement

• they take a subjected hosted by [Spec,AP] and

a complement to which they assign theta roles

• this type of phrase is assumed to be a small

clause (SC)
 Exclusively predicative adjectives
1. Adverb-like adjectives beginning with a-
e.g. afire, afraid, asleep, akin, alive, alike, alone,
afloat, aware, ashamed
The whole class was ashamed. /He was asleep.
• if the adjective is quantified it can be used as
a modifying adjective
e.g. a half-asleep student; a somewhat afraid
student; a fully aware teacher
 Exclusively predicative adjectives
2. Prepositional adjectives which can never
appear as pre-nominal modifiers, which
nevertheless appear in a post-modifying
position
e.g. Young people are fond of pop music.
A child subject to so many colds should be
carefully looked after.
This woman is prone to superstition.
 Attributive/Predicative adjectives
1. with distinct meanings, e.g. heavy, hard, slow,
frequent, traditionalist, occasional, possible
The march is slow. / A slow child
The luggage is heavy. / A heavy smoker

2) both predicative and modifying in one meaning and

only modifying in the other meaning, e.g. civil,
criminal, dramatic, atomic, chemical
She gave me a very civil answer. /Her answer was civil.
He is a civil engineer./ *The engineering is civil.
 Attributive/Predicative adjectives
3) adjectives such as old, new, wrong
A. when characterizing the referent directly they
are used in both positions, e.g. true, complete,
perfect, sure, clean, firm, sheer, total
e.g. old/new furniture // The furniture is old/new.
a wrong answer / The answer is wrong
B. when not characterizing the referent directly
they are used attributively
e.g. an old/new acquaintance // the wrong person
(wrongly identified)
 Attributive/Equative predications
a) Attributive – A is B
e.g. Mary is smart. / Bobby is a fresher. / The
district is in a state of chaos. / The problem is
that he should leave.

b) Equative – A=B
e.g. The girl is John’s friend. / He is Secretary of
State. / This girls is the most attractive of all.
 The Predicative: DPs/NPs
a) Attributive – a shame, a pity, no wonder, no doubt
e.g. It’s a pity that he should have left. / That he should
have left is a pity.

b) NPs without a determiner

e.g. He is master of the situation.
The woman was poor class. (of the poor class)

c) very rarely definite DPs

e.g. White hats are the thing today.
 Exercise 1
What do the following copula-like verbs subcategorize for?
1. He’ll make a poor pop-singer.
2. His voice went hoarse with so much shouting.
3. The results of these experiments will remain a
secret as long as the researches are alive.
4. The United States stands ready to take whatever
military action is appropriate.
5. In ten years’ time from now on he will make a
good president.
 Exercise 1
6. The air turned cold.
7. The house fell into decay.
8. He will turn traitor, you will see.
9. The knot has come untied.
10. He’ll continue as manager of the company
till the following elections.
11. Seawater tastes salty.
12. Beauty is a joy forever.
 Exercise 2
Supply the copula-like verbs in the sentences below:
1. His popularity may ......... eroded.
2. Your zip has ......... undone.
3. The mail ....... scattered on the table.
4. His eyes ......... black in anger.
5. What kind of people ........ bandit?
6. The silk ........ soft and smooth.
7. You will ......... a lovely public figure.
8. The telephone …….. dead.
 Exercise 3
Derive the sentences below:
1. Jack went red with anger.
2. The other child looked neglected.
3. He’ll make a good manager some day.
4. His fear turned into unreasoning panic.
5. The cake tasted sweet.
6. Peter Pan is a skillful lad.
7. He is at home.
 Exercise 4
• Decide whether the adjectives below are
exclusively attributive or exclusively
predicative. Illustrate in sentences.

WOODEN, MAIN, FAVOURITE, ENVIOUS,

GENERAL, PUBLIC, ALIVE, ASHEMED,
DAMAGED, DEPARTED, ALLEGED, EAGER,
FOND, HEAVY, CIVIL, OLD, GLAD, CURIOUS
 Exercise 5
Fill in the necessary prepositions:
1. He was not ________ home in their world.
2. Crying was ______ the point.
3. The man was _______ his best behavior at the
party
4. I am _______ films.
5. This is an unpopular measure whichever
Administration is ____ power.
6. We are ________ fear of snow.
7. Life was _______ standstill in New York yesterday.