BIOLOGY

CONCEPTS & CONNECTIONS

Fourth Edition

Neil A. Campbell • Jane B. Reece • Lawrence G. Mitchell • Martha R. Taylor

CHAPTER 5
The Working Cell

Modules 5.1 – 5.4

From PowerPoint® Lectures for Biology: Concepts & Connections

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
 Cool “Fires” Attract Mates and Meals

• Fireflies use light,

instead of chemical
signals, to send signals
to potential mates
• Females can also use
light flashes to attract
males of other firefly
species — as meals, not
mates

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 • The light comes from
a set of chemical
reactions, the
luciferin-luciferase
system
• Fireflies make light
energy from chemical
energy
• Life is dependent on
energy conversions

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ENERGY AND THE CELL

• Living cells are compartmentalized by

membranes
• Membranes are sites where chemical reactions
can occur in an orderly manner
• Living cells process energy by means of
enzyme-controlled chemical reactions

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5.1 Energy is the capacity to perform work

• Energy is defined as the capacity to do work

• All organisms require energy to stay alive

• Energy makes change possible

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 • Kinetic energy is
energy that is actually
doing work

Figure 5.1A

• Potential energy is
stored energy

Figure 5.1B
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5.2 Two laws govern energy conversion

• First law of thermodynamics

• Energy can be changed from one form to

another
– However, energy cannot be created or destroyed

Figure 5.2A

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 • Second law of thermodynamics
• Energy changes are not 100% efficient
– Energy conversions increase disorder, or
entropy
– Some energy is always lost as heat

Figure 5.2B

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5.3 Chemical reactions either store or release
energy

• Cells carry out thousands of chemical reactions

– The sum of these reactions constitutes cellular
metabolism

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 • There are two types of chemical reactions:
– Endergonic reactions absorb energy and yield
products rich in potential energy
Potential energy of molecules

Products

Amount of
energy
INPUT

Reactants

Figure 5.3A

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 – Exergonic reactions release energy and yield
products that contain less potential energy than
their reactants

Reactants
Potential energy of molecules

Amount of
energy
OUTPUT

Products

Figure 5.3B

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5.4 ATP shuttles chemical energy within the cell

• In cellular respiration, some energy is stored in

ATP molecules
• ATP powers nearly all forms of cellular work

• ATP molecules are the key to energy coupling

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 • When the bond joining a phosphate group to
the rest of an ATP molecule is broken by
hydrolysis, the reaction supplies energy for
cellular work

Adenine
Phosphate
groups
Hydrolysis
Energy
Ribose
Adenosine triphosphate
Adenosine diphosphate
(ADP)

Figure 5.4A

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 • How ATP powers cellular work
Potential energy of molecules

Reactants Products

Protein Work

Figure 5.4B

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 • The ATP cycle

Dehydration synthesis

Hydrolysis
Energy from Energy for
exergonic endergonic
reactions reactions

Figure 5.4C

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 BIOLOGY
CONCEPTS & CONNECTIONS
Fourth Edition

Neil A. Campbell • Jane B. Reece • Lawrence G. Mitchell • Martha R. Taylor

CHAPTER 5
The Working Cell

Modules 5.5 – 5.9

From PowerPoint® Lectures for Biology: Concepts & Connections

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
HOW ENZYMES WORK
5.5 Enzymes speed up the cell’s chemical reactions
by lowering energy barriers

• For a chemical reaction to begin, reactants must

absorb some energy
– This energy is called the energy of activation
(EA)
– This represents the energy barrier that prevents
molecules from breaking down spontaneously

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 • A protein catalyst called an enzyme can
decrease the energy barrier

EA

Enzyme
barrier

Reactants

1 Products 2

Figure 5.5A
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 EA
without
EA
with enzyme
Reactants enzyme Net
change
in energy

Products

Figure 5.5B

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5.6 A specific enzyme catalyzes each cellular
reaction

• Enzymes are selective

– This selectivity determines which chemical
reactions occur in a cell

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 • How an Enzyme
(sucrase)
Active
site Substrate
(sucrose)
enzyme
works Glucose Fructose 1
4
Enzyme available
Products are with empty active
released site

Substrate is 2
converted to
products Substrate
binds to
enzyme with
Figure 5.6
induced fit

• The enzyme
is unchanged and can repeat the process
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5.7 The cellular environment affects enzyme
activity

• Enzyme activity is influenced by

– temperature

– salt concentration

– pH

• Some enzymes require nonprotein cofactors

– Some cofactors are organic molecules called
coenzymes

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5.8 Enzyme inhibitors block enzyme action

• Inhibitors interfere with enzymes

– A competitive
inhibitor takes Substrate Active
site

the place of a
Enzyme
substrate in the
active site NORMAL BINDING OF SUBSTRATE

– A noncompetitive Competitive
inhibitor
Noncompetitive
inhibitor

inhibitor alters an
enzyme’s function
by changing its shape ENZYME INHIBITION
Figure 5.8

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5.9 Connection: Some pesticides and antibiotics
inhibit enzymes

• Certain pesticides are toxic to insects because

they inhibit key enzymes in the nervous system
• Many antibiotics inhibit enzymes that are
essential to the survival of disease-causing
bacteria
– Penicillin inhibits an enzyme that bacteria use in
making cell walls

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 BIOLOGY
CONCEPTS & CONNECTIONS
Fourth Edition

Neil A. Campbell • Jane B. Reece • Lawrence G. Mitchell • Martha R. Taylor

CHAPTER 5
The Working Cell

Modules 5.10 – 5.21

From PowerPoint® Lectures for Biology: Concepts & Connections

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
MEMBRANE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
5.10 Membranes organize the chemical activities of
cells

• Membranes organize the chemical reactions

making up metabolism



Cytoplasm

Figure 5.10
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• Membranes are selectively permeable

– They control the flow of substances into and out

of a cell

• Membranes can hold teams of enzymes that

function in metabolism

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5.11 Membrane phospholipids form a bilayer

• Phospholipids are Head

the main
structural
components of
membranes
• They each have a
hydrophilic head Symbol

and two
hydrophobic tails
Tails
Figure 5.11A

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 • In water, phospholipids form a stable bilayer
– The heads face outward and the tails face
inward

Water
Hydrophilic
heads

Hydrophobic
tails

Water

Figure 5.11B

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5.12 The membrane is a fluid mosaic of
phospholipids and proteins

• Phospholipid molecules form a flexible bilayer

– Cholesterol and protein molecules are embedded
in it
– Carbohydrates act as cell identification tags

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 • The plasma membrane of an animal cell

Glycoprotein Carbohydrate
(of
glycoprotein)
Fibers of the
extracellular
matrix
Glycolipid

Phospholipid
Cholesterol
Microfilaments Proteins
of the
cytoskeleton CYTOPLASM

Figure 5.12

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5.13 Proteins make the membrane a mosaic of
function

• Some membrane proteins form cell junctions

• Others transport substances across the

membrane

Figure 5.13 Transport

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 • Many membrane proteins are enzymes
• Some proteins function as receptors for
chemical messages from other cells
– The binding of a messenger to a receptor may
trigger signal transduction
Messenger molecule

Receptor

Activated
molecule

Figure 5.13 Enzyme activity Signal transduction

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5.14 Passive transport is diffusion across a
membrane

• In passive transport,
Molecule
substances diffuse of dye Membrane EQUILIBRIUM

through membranes
without work by the
cell
– They spread from
EQUILIBRIUM
areas of high
concentration to
areas of lower
concentration
Figure 5.14A & B

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5.15 Osmosis is the passive transport of water

Hypotonic Hypertonic

• In osmosis, water solution solution

travels from an
area of lower
solute Selectively Solute
concentration to permeable
membrane
molecule

an area of higher HYPOTONIC SOLUTION HYPERTONIC SOLUTION

Water
solute molecule

concentration

Selectively
permeable Solute molecule with
membrane cluster of water molecules

NET FLOW OF WATER Figure 5.15

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5.16 Water balance between cells and their
surroundings is crucial to organisms
• Osmosis causes cells to shrink in a hypertonic
solution and swell in a hypotonic solution
– The control of water balance
(osmoregulation) is essential for organisms
ISOTONIC HYPOTONIC HYPERTONIC
SOLUTION SOLUTION SOLUTION

ANIMAL
CELL

(1) Normal (2) Lysing (3) Shriveled

Plasma
membrane

PLANT
CELL

Figure 5.16 (4) Flaccid (5) Turgid (6) Shriveled

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5.17 Transport proteins facilitate diffusion across
membranes
• Small nonpolar molecules diffuse freely through
the phospholipid bilayer
• Many other kinds of molecules pass through
selective protein pores by facilitated diffusion
Solute
molecule

Transport
protein
Figure 5.17

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5.18 Cells expend energy for active transport

• Transport proteins can move solutes across a

membrane against a concentration gradient
– This is called active transport

– Active transport requires ATP

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 FLUID Phosphorylated

• Active OUTSIDE
CELL
Transport
protein
transport protein

transport in
two solutes
across a First

membrane
solute

1 First solute, 2 ATP transfers 3 Protein releases

inside cell, phosphate to solute outside
binds to protein protein cell

Second
solute

4 Second solute 5 Phosphate 6 Protein releases

binds to protein detaches from second solute
Figure 5.18 protein into cell
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5.19 Exocytosis and endocytosis transport large
molecules
• To move large molecules or particles through a
membrane
– a vesicle may fuse with the membrane and expel
its contents (exocytosis)

FLUID OUTSIDE CELL

CYTOPLASM
Figure 5.19A

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 – or the membrane may fold inward, trapping
material from the outside (endocytosis)

Figure 5.19B

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 • Three kinds of endocytosis

Pseudopod of Food being Plasma Material bound to

amoeba ingested membrane receptor proteins

PIT
Cytoplasm

Figure 5.19C

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5.20 Connection: Faulty membranes can overload
the blood with cholesterol

• Harmful levels of cholesterol can accumulate in

the blood if membranes lack cholesterol
receptors

Phospholipid
LDL PARTICLE outer layer

Receptor protein

Protein

Cholesterol

Plasma membrane Vesicle

CYTOPLASM

Figure 5.20

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5.21 Chloroplasts and mitochondria make energy
available for cellular work

• Enzymes and membranes are central to the

processes that make energy available to the cell
• Chloroplasts carry out photosynthesis, using
solar energy to produce glucose and oxygen
from carbon dioxide and water
• Mitochondria consume oxygen in cellular
respiration, using the energy stored in glucose
to make ATP

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 Sunlight energy

• Nearly all the chemical

energy that organisms
use comes ultimately Chloroplasts,
site of photosynthesis
from sunlight CO2 Glucose
+ +
H2 O Mitochondria O2
• Chemicals recycle sites of cellular
respiration
among living organisms
and their environment

(for cellular work)

Figure 5.21 Heat energy

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