Tools and Techniques

used in the Guidance Process

Kassandra Kay K. De Roxas
 Objectives
After going through the lesson, you should be able to:
• explain the term techniques of guidance;
• describe the major techniques of guidance;
• identify non-standardized and standardized techniques
of guidance;
• use different techniques of guidance in school
settings; and
• discuss the techniques of guidance in education.
 Introduction
Guidance is the help given by one person to an individual in
making choices and adjustments and in solving problems. Guidance
aims at aiding the helpee/counselee/clientele to grow in independence
and ability to be responsible for himself. It is a service that is
universal - not confined to the school or the family. It is found in all
phases of life - in the home, in business and industry, in government,
in social life, in hospitals and in prisons; indeed, it is present
wherever there are people who can help.
 Introduction
However, professional school personnel have faced the reality that
“fatalities” (dropouts, trouble makers, alienated pupils,
underachievers) occurs. Reality is such that attempts should be made
to adjust to pupil differences and their unique dilemmas.
Guidance is seen as one of the approaches to lessen school conflicts
between pupils and school and to focus on the evaluation of the individual
pupil, to perform their functions, guidance personnel need not only skills
and human concern but also the best information about pupils it is possible
to obtain.
 Introduction
The techniques which are generally employed by guidance workers
for collecting basic data about a person are either standardised or
non-standardised. Both the categories of techniques are used in
getting primary data. All the techniques are useful. The only
consideration which the guidance worker should keep in mind is that
the techniques employed should give reliable and objective
information. The use of a particular technique, however, depends
upon what the guidance worker wants to get out of it.
 Techniques
1. Non-Standardized Techniques 2. Standardized Techniques
a. Questionnaire a. Aptitude Tests
b. Sociometry b. Achievement Test
c. Autobiography c. Interest Inventory
d. Rating Scales d. Personality Test
e. Anecdotal Record
f. Case Study
g. Cumulative Records
h. Interviews
 A. Observation

• This is an oral and visual way of measuring what a person says and what
a person does. It is basic to other guidance techniques which does not
necessarily pertain only to verbal language.
• In this technique, behavior is studied through observation by a trained
observer. The effectiveness of the technique depends upon the skillfulness of
the observer.
 A. Observation
Limitations that an observer has to guard against which can be remedied:

a) The observer may have a strong bias which proper training can help him
overcome.
b) The observation may be limited in time but a real observer can always find
time.
c) The observer may not be accurate in reporting where practice can result in
perfection.
d) The observed behavior may be misinterpreted.
The items reported which are out of proportion to the total situation can
always be reorganized to fit into a total situation.
 A. Observation
Some aspects of behavior that can be observed:

• study habits
• leadership qualities
• desire to get attention
• paying attention
• acts of dishonesty
• speech difficulties
• ways of asking/ answering questions
Example of Observation
 B. Autobiographical Sketches
• Autobiography - an individual life story ㅡ routine behavior, attitudes,
interests, ideals written by himself.
• It is a means of securing information about an individual, which is an effective
source in the counseling process.
• They are in form of therapeutic treatment, releasing tensions within an
individual. It is often difficult to write freely and fully about one’s experiences
who may tend to exaggerate the truths or facts.
• An autobiography is a description of an individual in his own words. As a
guidance technique for studying the individual, it gives valuable
information about the individual's interests, abilities, personal history,
hopes, ambitions, likes, dislikes, etc.
 B. Autobiographical Sketches

• In guidance, structured autobiographical items are given to the individual

and he is asked to write them out. The autobiographical material thus
obtained is verified by various other means. Since feelings, values and
attitude cannot be measured by any other technique, autobiography
appears to be the one technique for appraising these characteristics.
Example of An Autobiography
 C. Anecdotal Records
• Short descriptions of a significant event/incident of a person’s overt
behavior. This device facilitates the sharing of observation made by a
teacher/counsellor, with the cooperation with the staff members who
collect the records/leave their reports from time to time inside the pupil’s
folder.
• Provide descriptions of the person’s spontaneous behavior in various
situations. They reveal problems and offer information that will help the pupil
understand himself.
 C. Anecdotal Records
Anecdotal records should possess the following criteria:

• Objectivity - means that anecdotal records do not give an account of the

personal emotional reaction of the reporter.
• Adequate Background - records give definite information about time,
place and person involved as well as name, age and the specific situations
wherein the counselee is observed.
• Selectivity - teachers and trained workers can select which of the
anecdote are significant in understanding a counselee’s problem.
• Reliability - the report is based exactly on one’s personal observation, not
on hearsay.
 C. Anecdotal Records
Types of Anecdotal Records:

• The first type of record contains only the objective account of a student’s
behavior. In these types of record there are no comments.
• In the second type of record, brief comments along with the subject’s
behavior account are noted down.
• In the third type of record, problem related to his/her behavior are noted
down.
• In the fourth type of record, students’ behavior along with his good and
bad qualities and suggestion for improvement are mentioned.
 C. Anecdotal Records
• An anecdote may be compared to a snapshot of an isolated incident of the
behavior of the student, which suggests some special significance. Just as
a camera catches the pose of an individual at a given time, similarly the
anecdote should report exactly the behavior observed.
• If we accept the uniqueness of the individual as a basic principle of
guidance, this word snapshot is of immense significance to us for
guidance purposes. An individual's behavior is always in response to
some felt need. For example, desire for affection or threat to his security
may cause him to show certain strange behavior.
Example of Anecdotal Record
 D. Case Study
• It is an intensive investigation employing all types of research, making
use of tests, checklists, interviews, and observation. Its function is to
assist in discovering the causes of needs to take remedial measures.
• The use of techniques as obtaining facts, diagnosis or treatment is called the
case study method because it utilizes the scientific procedures followed by a
physician.
• It is defined as a collection of all available information - social, physiological,
biographical, environmental, vocational - that promises to help explain a single
individual.
 D. Case Study
• A case study is a comprehensive collection of information with the help
of all available tools and techniques of data collection.
• It is the most important technique and the-best method of studying the whole
individual. Its purpose is to say positively and with confidence that, as far as
possible, all sources of information have been tapped and all kinds of data
have been gathered from them.
• The main object behind a case study is to observe the individual as a whole.
• The problem studied in a case study is not a problem of ill-health.
 D. Case Study
Steps in Preparing a Case Study:

• Recognition of the status of what is to be investigated.

• Collection of data relating to the factors associated with the problem
under study.
• Diagnosis - identification of causal factors.
• Application of remedial measures.
• Follow-up techniques - necessary to check the correctness of the
diagnosis and to modify the treatment to suit the case.
 D. Case Study
Facts to be collected in a case study:

The individual who seeks guidance has to he first identified to bow what he
is. But investigations also are too he made re-ding the environment which has
made him what he is. Therefore, an adequate case study about a person
presents basic information on the following topics:

a) the physical, socio-economic and cultural environment

b) the history and present status of the family
c) the history and present status of the family
 D. Case Study
Difficulties in making a case study:

• The case study should penetrate into the problem under study. It should
not be superficial.
• Parents should be contacted. Medical opinion should be sought. All those
who come into contact with the individual should be approached. The
study not be one sided.
• All possible details should be gathered and not even the slightest detail
should be overlooked.
Example of Case Study
Example of Case Study
 E. Cumulative Records
• It is a record of information concerned with the appraisal of an individual
student. The information which is obtained periodically through various
sources, techniques, tests, interviews, observations, case study and the
like, is assembled in a summary form on a cumulative record card, so that
it may be used when the student needs our advice for the solution of
some educational or vocational problem.
• These contain spaces for recording the data needed for what is called the
inventory service of guidance.
 E. Cumulative Records
• A method of recording, filing and using information essential for the
guidance of students.
• It is a helpful current and future guide in charting the progress of a special
needs child as it serves as an additional information base for providing
vocational and academic guidance for the student, in addition to the student's
IEP (Individualized Education Plan). 1908 – the first cumulative record
appeared in Boston.
 E. Cumulative Records
Main items found in cumulative records

• Identifying Data: Address, Birthday, Birthplace, Civil Status, Religion.

• Home Background: Parent’s name, Number of siblings, Occupations of
Parents.
• Health Information: Immunizations, Dental Records, Frequency of
illness, Sensory Abilities and corrections, Chronic diseases/defects.
• Educational History: Age of starting school, promotes and failures,
frequency of changing schools, standardized test score
 E. Cumulative Records
Main items found in cumulative records

• Anecdotal Records/Remarks: observation of interests, notable abilities,

relationships with peers and school personnel disciplinary incidents.
• Case summary: employed only for pupils with some personnel/social
dilemma that impedes growth.
• Recommendation: remarks from prior counsellors, teachers, results of
staff conferences.

In addition, pictures of the pupils showing different stages of development

can be included. All schools should keep cumulative records which result
from the cooperative efforts of those concerned with the education of the
child at different levels of his growth and development.
 E. Cumulative Records
Need and Importance of Cumulative Record

Importance in Guidance
• The basic principle and assumptions of guidance take into consideration
the individual differences. Every individual differs from the other in
some psychological character, quality or trait. For example, no two
individuals are alike. They differ from each other as far as interests,
aptitudes and abilities are concerned. Cumulative records reveal such
individual differences and indicate the nature and amount of professional
assistance needed by individual students at various stages of their
development.
 E. Cumulative Records
Need and Importance of Cumulative Record

Importance in Guidance
• The cumulative record is a permanent history of the educational
development of the individual student. It indicates his attendance, health,
achievement and various other aspects of school life. Hence it is useful in
analyzing the future needs of the individual student and proper
educational and occupational guidance can be offered on the basis of his
needs. For example, if it indicates the weaknesses in the physical
development of the student, steps to remove those weaknesses can be
suggested.
 E. Cumulative Records
Need and Importance of Cumulative Record

Importance in Teaching
• The cumulative record of an individual student suggests the teacher
whether the attainments are in proportion to his/her mental abilities.
• The cumulative records of different students help the teacher in
classifying students in accordance with scholastic aptitudes and mental
abilities.
• The cumulative records of different students of a class help the new
teacher in understanding the needs of students.
• They are diagnostic tools to analyses a behavior problem or an
educational one.
 E. Cumulative Records
Need and Importance of Cumulative Record

Importance in Teaching
• Cumulative records indicate the students who need individual attention.
• Cumulative records help the teachers in writing reports about individual
students, and the principal in writing a character certificate most
objectively.
• Teachers can locate problem children and children needing special help
and adjust the teaching accordingly.
• For making case studies the cumulative record is very useful to teachers,
because there is some similarity of items collected.
 E. Cumulative Records
Characteristics of a Good Cumulative Record

• Information gathered should be complete, comprehensive and adequate

so that valid inferences may be drawn.
• Information recorded should be true and valid.
• Information to be reliable should be collected by a number of teachers
and then pooled.
• A cumulative record should be re-evaluated from time-to-time.
• A cumulative record should be objective and free from personal opinions
and prejudices.
• It should be usable.
Example of Cumulative Records
 F. Confidential Data

• These are data which are classified as confidential by the counsellor,

which are kept in a separate file and place.
Example of Confidential Data
 G. The Interview
• An interview is a conversation with a purpose. It is a serious conversation
directed toward a definite purpose other than satisfaction in the interview
itself. (Bingham and Moore)
• A dynamic face-to-face relationship dependent upon the skill of the counsellor
and the cooperation of the counselee.
• An opportunity for an individual to make clear his confused thoughts and
feelings and to bring out his inner conflicts.
• The most essential of all techniques in the counselling process.
 G. The Interview
Advantages of Interview:
• It is a widely used technique in guidance because it has certain advantages
which are not possessed by other techniques of guidance.
• It is very flexible.
• It serves a variety of purposes.
• It has a great therapeutic value.
• Interview is helpful in diagnosing a problem.
• The face-to-face contact gives very useful clues about the client's personality.
• Interview is useful to the client also because it enables him to think about the
problem and about his ‘self’.
• Interview provides a choice to the client and the counsellor to exchange ideas
and attitudes through conversation.
 G. The Interview
Kinds of Interview
• Structured Interview - follows a predetermined plan of questioning which
make use a list of questions/checklist of general topics as a guide. This is
used in employment situations where the employer requires specific
information of an employee’s evaluation, work experiences, special abilities
and reasons for leaving his former positions.
Advantages:
• Ensures that essential topics will be covered and lessened the probability that
an unskilled interviewer will ignore many important areas of inquiry.
• Easier to compare interviews and rate interviewees when it covers the same
topic.
 G. The Interview

2. Unstructured Interview - when the interviewer is free to develop df the

conversation along the lines that seem most suitable for him.

Advantages:
• Its flexibility is desirable in clinical situations/vocational guidance sessions
when the interviewer wishes to encourage the person to talk as freely as
possible about his needs and desires.
 G. The Interview
Purpose of Interview

• To obtain information whereby attitudes, opinion and techniques of

business associates are sought which can be acquired through the school
records, questionnaire technique, and exchange of personal use.
• To give information not found in books like interpretation of school
regulations, college requirements and curricula.
• For employment interview to get the best applicant, and the candidate to
seek the kind of job he feels qualified.
• For adjustment interview which is the most difficult form of guidance
and counselling where the counselee has to solve a problem.
 G. The Interview
Steps for Interview

1. Prepare for the interview

The setting should have order and privacy, free from distortion as noise
and interruptions. The interviewer should have adequate knowledge about the
student/counselee obtained from tests or other techniques.
2. Establish rapport
This can be done by manifesting the feelings of friendliness, security
and mutual confidence.
 G. The Interview
Steps for Interview

3. Develop Insight
The major goal of any interview is to let the counselee develop his own
insight. That is, after he tells all, unburdening himself of his frustrations,
repressions or difficulties will be able to see the situation in a new light. An
absence of critical attitude, surprise or disapproval on the part of the
interviewer will make the counselee develop trust and feel more at ease.
Through a pleasant atmosphere and means of leading questions, the counselee
will become aware of his difficulties, feelings and conflicts. Hence, he is
helped to do his own thinking, reach conclusion and probably change his
attitude. Recording salient facts is necessary.
 G. The Interview
Steps for Interview

4. Terminate the interview

The interview is said to be terminated when the counselee leaves with a
feeling of having had a satisfying and helpful experience, with self-
confidence, a light heart but eager for activity. He should be made to feel free
to meet the counselor again.

5. Keep records of the interview

The records must be made not only during but also immediately after
the interview and these must be filed in a secure place for future references.
 G. The Interview

Steps for Interview

6. Evaluate the interview

The counsellor would do well to go over the entire interview, to
determine whether improvements were made in a subsequent interview with
the pupils.
 G. The Interview
Questions helpful in evaluating the interview:

• Was there a progress made by the counselee toward the recognition of the
problem?
• Was he willing to face the problem?
• Did the interview help the pupil become more self-reliant?
• Did the counselee come for help again of his own will?
• Was there noticeable improvement in the counselee’s behavior?
• Did the counselee carry out the plan mutually outlined?
 G. The Interview
Counselors should bear in mind that not all interviews succeed, and that an
interview that has failed need not be discouraging. An examination of the
whole situation can be a step toward solving a problem.

Limitations of interview
• An interview is a subjective technique. It lacks objectivity in the collection
of data about the client. The bias and the prejudices of the interviewer
enter into his interpretation of the data collected through an interview.
• The personal bias makes the interview less reliable and valid.
 G. The Interview

• The results of an interview are very difficult to interpret.

• The usefulness of an interview is limited. The success of an interview
depends on the personality qualities of the interviewer, his preparation for
the interview and the way in which he interviews. If the interviewer
monopolizes talking or does not listen patiently to what the client says.
The interview loses value.
 H. Standardized Tests
• These are tools of measuring intelligence, aptitudes and personality
traits.
• One of which a test is prepared by a competent group or group of persons
whereby every item is chosen after its difficulty and value have been
determined by means of rigid experimental processes.
• They provide reliable and valid information.
• They are reusable, less time consuming and can be scored easily.
Tests - The most commonly used specialized technique in guidance and
counseling. Found to provide the counselee with the means to demonstrate
objectively his abilities, aptitudes, interests previously unrevealed, especially
unexplored ones because of the counselee’s limited opportunities for activities
in his field.
 H. Standardized Tests
Uses of Tests:
• Tests are used as basis for admission into an educational institution which serves
as a measuring rod to help teachers and the administrative staff in adjusting
students who transfer from one school to another.
• Tests serve to give information about an individual’s ability, interests, aptitudes
and plan which are more accurate than other techniques.
• Tests are a basis for promotion so as to determine whether or not students are
entitled to obtain passing grades.
• Tests are used to compare students belonging to one school, students of
different schools but in the same level to determine the winners in contests.
 H. Standardized Tests
Uses of Tests:
• Tests are used for the classifications of pupils into sections.
• Tests determine which students are especially gifted in Math, Science and English
as well as those who need remedial instruction. Tests are good judges of students’
abilities.
• Tests evaluate standards of different schools.
• Survey tests reveal cases of ineffective study habits.
• Tests are techniques of guidance whereby individual learners are helped to adjust
to the school, the curriculum, and to make a vocational choice.
• Tests can be used to evaluate teaching methods and the progress of pupils of
similar ability can be compared.
 H. Standardized Tests
Types of Tests
1. Achievement Tests - devised and administered to measure how well a person has
learned as an outcome of instruction.
• Used to assess student's performance in school subjects. All unit, semester and
terminal examination tests are nothing but achievement tests. These tests focus on
skills or abilities that are traditionally taught in the schools. Therefore,
achievement tests may be defined as tools designed to measure the degree of
student learning in specific curriculum areas common to most schools, such as
Mathematics, English usages, etc.
 H. Standardized Tests
Achievement tests are used as learning measures of:
• the amount of learning.
• the rate of learning
• comparisons with others or with achievement of self in other areas level of
learning in sub-areas, and
• strengths and weaknesses in a subject matter area because of their extensive use
and relatively easy task of identifying appropriate context measures.
Limitations:
• hard to measure because they are not graded according to difficulty because it is
impossible to compare the results of one’s test with those of another
.
 H. Standardized Tests
Types of Tests
2. Intelligence Tests - measure general intelligence, the IQ of the counselee which
determines one’s mental ability. They may be individual or group tests.
• Regarded as a measure of scholastic aptitude as validated against measures of
academic achievement.
• Intelligence Quotient - a single global score which indicates the individual’s
general intellectual level.

IQ= MA (Mental Age) x 100

CA (Chronological Age)
 H. Standardized Tests
Types of Tests

• The level of mental development ability that a person has attained without
regard to chronological age.
• The age in years and months
 H. Standardized Tests
Types of Tests
3. Aptitude Tests - measure the probable potentiality for development prior to
training or schooling as tests in aptitude covered art, music, science, algebra, manual,
and mechanical. Its value is the discovery of an individual’s ability to succeed in a
specific field.
• ·Aptitude - a trait that characterizes an individual's ability to perform in a given
area or to acquire the learning necessary for performance in a given area. It
presumes an inherent or native ability that can he developed to its maximum
rough learning or other experiences.
 H. Standardized Tests

Aptitude tests may potentially be used by counsellors and others because (1) they
may identify potential abilities of which the individuals is not aware; (2) they
may encourage the development of special or potential abilities of a given
individual; (3) they may provide information to assist an individual in making
educational and career decisions or other choices between competing
alternatives; (4) they may serve as an aid in predicting the level of academic or
vocational success an individual might anticipate; and (5) they may be useful in
grouping individuals with similar aptitudes for developmental and other
educational purposes.
 H. Standardized Tests
Types of Aptitude Tests
• Special Aptitude Tests - refer to those that seek to measure an individual's
potential ability to perform or to acquire proficiency in a specific occupation
or other type of activity.
• Vocational Aptitude Batteries - heavily researched and well-respected
aptitude test developed by the Department of Defense. It measures a young
adult's strengths and potential for success in military training.
• Scholastic Aptitude Tests - Scholastic academic aptitude tests measure one's
potential for performing in academic situations.
• Interest Inventory Tests - reveal the likes/dislikes of a person in appraising
his occupational preferences in a certain field of specialization
 H. Standardized Tests
Types of Aptitude Tests
• Personality Inventory Tests - measure the sum total of an individual’s overt
behavior and inner feelings. It is the totality of what makes an individual different
from one another.
• Trade Tests - designed to determine the skills, special abilities and techniques that
make an individual fit for a given occupation as tests for engineers, plumbers,
carpenters, and mechanics. They may be in oral and picture tests.
• Diagnostic Tests - aimed to uncover and focus attention on weaknesses of
individuals for remedial purposes.
 I. Case Conference
• This is called to gain understanding and of determining sound approaches
to several problems of counselees such as:

- unwise choice of course

- reading disabilities
- social maladjustment
- ineffective study habits
- achievement below that which is expected of him.
 I. Case Conference
• Case conference is done without the knowledge of the counselee and it aims
to avoid rushed approaches to his problems. Hence, several persons are
involved like the guidance counselor, the homeroom sponsor, the teacher who
made reference, head of the department and the teacher who has the
knowledge of the counselee and his problem.
• It is well to rote that in this conference, the counselee is led to make his plans
and decisions, and where such plans prove inadequate, the counselee must be
helped to select an appropriate one.
 J. Sociometry
• The mapping of interpersonal likes and preferences within a classroom. The
theory is that people can be more productive and movable to influence when
they are socially comfortable. It is not valid unless members of the group have
had an opportunity to become acquainted with each other. Its purpose is to
assess the degree of acceptance of an individual by his peers.
• The purpose of this is to study the nature of social relationship of individual
within a group. It offers an opportunity to identify personality problems,
especially in isolates and the rejects. The technique is a useful source of
information for appraisal of social behavior of students.
 J. Sociometry

In 1934 of Moreno’s book entitled “Who Shall Survive?” revised in 1943,

this technique has been developed. Its application to the school situation
involves asking each pupil to indicate the other pupils in his class or groups
whom he regards as close friends and likes to have in the group and those
toward whom he does not feel friendly and would prefer not to have in his
group.
 J. Sociometry

Questions that may be used in Sociometry:

• Which two pupils would you like to sit next to you?

• Which classmate would you want to help you with your school work?
• What pupils of the same sex would you invite to accompany you on a hike?
• What pupil of the opposite sex would you invite to a party?
 J. Sociometry
Three types of Sociometric Techniques:

• The Nomination - the student is asked to select and name his/her peers in
terms of some criterion suggested by the teacher.
• The Social Acceptance - levels of social relationship are stated and the
students asked to express his/her sociometric choice.
• The 'Who's Who' or 'Guess Who' - brief descriptions of various types of
students are provided and they are asked to guess who in the class matches
with the description. The sociometric data is presented in the form of a:
Sociogram - which shows attractions and repulsions within a group and
helps the teacher and the counsellor in discovering the problems of students in
relation to the group.
 Example of Sociometry
Suppose we want to know how much interpersonal trust exists within a small
group of six members. Let’s call the group members Cey, Cai, Ger, Jam, Joz
and Lar. For the purposes of this example, we will use the following criterion:
“I trust this person to keep oral agreements and commitments, and not to
undercut me or go behind my back.” We will use the symbols:
 Example of Sociometry
Next, we interview each group member individually. When we have
established rapport, and have explained that all responses will be kept
confidential, we ask the person we are interviewing to rate every other person
in the group, based on the criterion.

This means that Cey has high trust of Lar, distrust or is in conflict with Cai as
well as Jam, has moderate trust of Ger, and so of Joz.
In the course of the interviews, we can elicit details about all of these relationships. We can ask Cey, for example, why she distrusts Cai and Jam, and Cey’s ideas about what Cai could do to improve the situation.
 Example of Sociometry
After conducting all the interviews and obtaining ratings from everyone, the
next step is to chart all the responses in the sociomatrix.

Here is the sociomatrix for our sample group:

 Example of Sociometry
This matrix already tells us a great deal about the group dynamics. With a little
analysis the matrix becomes something like an X-Ray or CAT Scan of the
groups’ interpersonal relationships. Columns showing -’s can identify those
people that the group may be close to rejection. Rows showing all Q’s or +’s
may highlight people who fear self-disclosure or people who are
undifferentiated in social relationships.
Another important pattern to look for is what are called mutuals. A mutual
occurs when individual A rates individual B at the same level individual B
rates individual A. A positive mutual is when they both rate each other +,
wherein they show bonding in a group. A negative mutual is when they both
rate each other -, wherein they show areas of conflict. The identification of
negative mutuals gives the consultant or therapist an insight as to where to start
to repair a dysfunctional group.
Example of Sociometry
 Example of Sociometry
A closer look at the sociomatrix shows that Cey and Cai have mutual
distrust/conflict. If this was a work group and we are asked to improve the
functioning of this group, we could start by improving the relationship
between Cey and Cai before bringing the group together for teambuilding.

To avoid confusion in terminology, the following are defined:

• Star - the subject who receive the most choices and the most popular in the
group.
• Isolate - a member of the group who makes a choice but unchosen by
others.
• Mutual Choice - two individuals who have chosen each other.
Example of Sociometry
 K. Clinical Method

• This is the method whereby the child’s problem is more serious than any case
referred to in the case study method. An extensive study of the case may be
made by psychologists, psychiatrists with the cooperation of special services.
• A clinical psychologist can use personality assessments to help choose the best
therapy for his clients.
 L. Protective Techniques
• These are expressive techniques where a child has to add meaning to a
meaningless situation, which are most useful with very young children.
• The use of vague, ambiguous, unstructured stimulus objects or situations in
which the subject “projects” his or her personality, attitude, opinions and self-
concept to give the situation some structure.

• These are indirect and unstructured methods of investigation which have

been developed by the psychologists and use projection of respondents for
inferring about underline motives, urges or intentions which cannot be secure
through direct questioning as the respondent either resists to reveal them or
is unable to figure out himself.
 L. Protective Techniques
Projection - A defense mechanism with which the ego protects itself from
anxiety by externalizing unpleasant feelings or experiential element.

Theoretical Foundations of P.T. :

• Uncover feelings, beliefs, attitudes and motivation which many consumers
find difficult to articulate.
• Discover the person’s characteristic modes of perceiving his or her world and
how to behave in it.
• Enter the private worlds of subjects to uncover their inner perspectives in a
way they feel comfortable with.
 L. Protective Techniques

Types of Tools used in Projective Techniques:

1. Completion - The subject is given an incomplete sentence, story, argument or
conversation, and asked to finish it. It may also be in the means of showing the
subject a picture of an incomplete situation and asked on how he will respond to the
situation.
 L. Protective Techniques
Example: “If my mother....” (Sentence Completion)
Rosenzweig’s Picture-
Frustration Study, 1948-
the client is
given/presented with 24
cartoons with an
incomplete dialog, the
client then is asked to
complete the dialog
answering the question,
“How will you react
with this situation?”
 L. Protective Techniques

Types of Tools used in Projective Techniques:

2. Expressive - A subject is asked to role-play, act, draw or paint a specific
concept or situation.
Example: Handwriting Analysis, Human Figure Drawings, Projective Puppet
Play
 L. Protective Techniques

Types of Tools used in Projective Techniques:

3. Construction - The subject is asked to construct a story or a picture from a
stimulus concept.
Example: Hood Johnson’s Thematic Apperception Test, 1990. (consists of a series of
10 pictures presented one at a time to the clientele)
L. Protective Techniques
 L. Protective Techniques
Types of Tools used in Projective Techniques:
4. Association - The subjects are presented with a stimulus and they respond by
indicating the first word, image or thought elicited by the stimulus.

Example: Hermann Rorschach “Inkblot” Test, 1921 (contains 10 series of

pictures that are presented one at a time wherein the first five contains only black
and white inkblots and the last five contain colors.)
L. Protective Techniques
 L. Protective Techniques
Types of Tools used in Projective Techniques:
5. Choice Ordering - The subjects are presented with a stimulus and they respond
by indicating the first word, image or thought elicited by the stimulus.

Example: Hermann Rorschach “Inkblot” Test, 1921 (contains 10 series of

pictures that are presented one at a time wherein the first five contains only black
and white inkblots and the last five contain colors.)
 M. Rating Scale Techniques

• A technique whereby the behavior of the child may be known by means

of assigning degrees of responses with corresponding scales or values.
• Presence or absence of a particular type of behavior or trait in a person is rated
in terms of quantity or quality.
 M. Rating Scale Techniques
Rating scale is defined as a selected list of 'words, phrases, sentences,
paragraphs, following which an observer records a value or rating based on
some objective scale of values. It is a special kind of checklist in which the
items or characteristics checked are rated quantitatively or qualitatively
according to the degree of presence or absence of a trait, the degree or
perfection of a skill or the degree of completion of a task.
 M. Rating Scale Techniques
2 Ways of Rating Scale Technique:
• Self- Rating Scale - the individual rate himself. It provides useful information for
self-analysis which leads to better self-actualization or understanding.
• Opinionated Rating Scale - someone is to rate the individual.
They may be numerical scales employing numbers to signify gradations, descriptive
with phrases to indicate various degrees, or graphic with units/degrees indicated on a
continuum.
This self-rating form enables an individual to provide information about himself
by means of filling out a checklist of self-appraisal forms either in behavioral
descriptions by indicating the extent to which the behavior describes what he is like or
in traits or characteristics to place marks to which trait he possesses.
 N. The Questionnaire Method

• A questionnaire is a list of questions to be answered by an individual or a

group of individuals, especially to get facts or information. It should be
elaborated to match with other techniques. Questions are designed to get
information about conditions and practices about which the respondent(s)
are presumed to have the knowledge.
 M. Rating Scale Techniques
Two Types of Questions in a Questionnaire Method:
• Close-ended types - requires the answer in the form 'yes' or 'no' or in a limited
number of given categories.
Example:

• Open-ended types - require the individual to think and write.

Example:
• What kind of friend do you want to have?
• What types of activities do you like to do most?
Thank You