CHAPTER 4

Part 2
Sampling. Quantizing. Encoding.
 Pulse Modulation
• Pulse modulation consists essentially of sampling analog
information signals and then converting those samples
into discrete pulses and transporting the pulses from a
source to a destination over a physical transmission
medium.

• The four predominant methods of pulse modulation:

– pulse width modulation (PWM)
– pulse position modulation (PPM)
– pulse amplitude modulation (PAM)
– pulse code modulation (PCM).
 ts
Pulse Modulation
Analog signal

Sample pulse

Pulse width modulation

Pulse position modulation

Pulse amplitude modulation

Pulse code modulation

8 bit
 Pulse Width Modulation
• PWM is sometimes called pulse duration
modulation (PDM) or pulse length modulation
(PLM), as the width (active portion of the duty
cycle) of a constant amplitude pulse is varied
proportional to the amplitude of the analog
signal at the time the signal is sampled.

• The maximum analog signal amplitude produces

the widest pulse, and the minimum analog signal
amplitude produces the narrowest pulse. Note,
however, that all pulses have the same
amplitude.
 Pulse Position Modulation
• With PPM, the position of a constant-width pulse
within a prescribed time slot is varied according
to the amplitude of the sample of the analog
signal.

• The higher the amplitude of the sample, the

farther to the right the pulse is positioned within
the prescribed time slot. The highest amplitude
sample produces a pulse to the far right, and the
lowest amplitude sample produces a pulse to the
far left.
 Pulse Amplitude Modulation
• With PAM, the amplitude of a constant width,
constant-position pulse is varied according to
the amplitude of the sample of the analog signal.

• The amplitude of a pulse coincides with the

amplitude of the analog signal.

• PAM waveforms resemble the original analog

signal more than the waveforms for PWM or
PPM.
 Pulse Code Modulation
• With PCM, the analog signal is sampled
and then converted to a serial n-bit binary
code for transmission.

• Each code has the same number of bits

and requires the same length of time for
transmission
 Pulse Modulation
• PAM is used as an intermediate form of
modulation with PSK, QAM, and PCM, although
it is seldom used by itself.

• PWM and PPM are used in special-purpose

communications systems mainly for the military
but are seldom used for commercial digital
transmission systems.

• PCM is by far the most prevalent form of pulse

modulation and will be discussed in more detail.
 Pulse Code Modulation
• PCM is the preferred method of
communications within the public switched
telephone network because with PCM it is
easy to combine digitized voice and digital
data into a single, high-speed digital signal
and propagate it over either metallic or
optical fiber cables.
 Pulse Code Modulation
• With PCM, the pulses are of fixed length and
fixed amplitude.

• PCM is a binary system where a pulse or lack of

a pulse within a prescribed time slot represents
either a logic 1 or a logic 0 condition.

• PWM, PPM, and PAM are digital but seldom

binary, as a pulse does not represent a single
binary digit (bit).
 PCM system Block Diagram

Transmitter

Receiver
 PCM Sampling
• The function of a sampling circuit in a PCM transmitter is to
periodically sample the continually changing analog input
voltage and convert those samples to a series of constant-
amplitude pulses that can more easily be converted to binary
PCM code.

• A sample-and-hold circuit is a nonlinear device (mixer) with

two inputs: the sampling pulse and the analog input signal.

• For the ADC to accurately convert a voltage to a binary code,

the voltage must be relatively constant so that the ADC can
complete the conversion before the voltage level changes. If
not, the ADC would be continually attempting to follow the
changes and may never stabilize on any PCM code.
 PCM Sampling
• Essentially, there are two basic techniques used
to perform the sampling function
– natural sampling
– flat-top sampling

• Natural sampling is when tops of the sample

pulses retain their natural shape during the
sample interval, making it difficult for an ADC to
convert the sample to a PCM code.
PCM Sampling
 PCM Sampling
• The most common method used for
sampling voice signals in PCM systems is
flat- top sampling, which is accomplished
in a sample-and-hold circuit. The purpose
of a sample-and-hold circuit is to
periodically sample the continually
changing analog input voltage and convert
those samples to a series of constant-
amplitude PAM voltage levels.
 PCM Sampling Rate
• The Nyquist sampling theorem establishes the
minimum Nyquist sampling rate (fs) that can be
used for a given PCM system.

• For a sample to be reproduced accurately in a

PCM receiver, each cycle of the analog input
signal (fa) must be sampled at least twice.

• Consequently, the minimum sampling rate is

equal to twice the highest audio input frequency.
 PCM Sampling Rate
• If fs is less than two times fa an impairment
called alias or foldover distortion occurs.

• Mathematically, the minimum Nyquist

sampling rate is:
fs ≥ 2fa
 Quantization and the Folded
Binary Code
• Quantization is the process of converting an
infinite number of possibilities to a finite number
of conditions.

• Analog signals contain an infinite number of

amplitude possibilities.

• Converting an analog signal to a PCM code with

a limited number of combinations requires
quantization.
Quantization
 Folded Binary Code
• With quantization, the total voltage range is subdivided
into a smaller number of subranges.

• The PCM code shown in Table 10-2 is a three-bit sign-

magnitude code with eight possible combinations (four
positive and four negative).

• The leftmost bit is the sign bit (1 = + and 0 = -), and the
two rightmost bits represent magnitude.

• This type of code is called a folded binary code because

the codes on the bottom half of the table are a mirror
image of the codes on the top half, except for the sign
bit.
 Quantization
• With a folded binary code, each voltage level has one
code assigned to it except zero volts, which has two
codes, 100 (+0) and 000 (-0).

• The magnitude difference between adjacent steps is

called the quantization interval or quantum.

• For the code shown in Table 10-2, the quantization

interval is 1 V.

• If the magnitude of the sample exceeds the highest

quantization interval, overload distortion (also called
peak limiting) occurs.
 Quantization
• Assigning PCM codes to absolute magnitudes is called
quantizing.

• The magnitude of a quantum is also called the

resolution.

• The resolution is equal to the voltage of the minimum

step size, which is equal to the voltage of the least
significant bit (Vlsb) of the PCM code.

• The smaller the magnitude of a quantum, the better

(smaller) the resolution and the more accurately the
quantized signal will resemble the original analog
sample.
Quantization

Input analog signal

Sampling pulse

PAM signal

PCM code
 Quantization
• For a sample, the voltage at t3 is approximately +2.6 V.
The folded PCM code is

sample voltage = 2.6 = 2.6

resolution 1

• There is no PCM code for +2.6; therefore, the magnitude

of the sample is rounded off to the nearest valid code,
which is 111, or +3 V.

• The rounding-off process results in a quantization error

of 0.4 V.
 Quantization
• The likelihood of a sample voltage being equal to one of
the eight quantization levels is remote. Therefore, as
shown in the figure, each sample voltage is rounded off
(quantized) to the closest available level and then
converted to its corresponding PCM code.

• The rounded off error is called the called the quantization

error (Qe).

• To determine the PCM code for a particular sample

voltage, simply divide the voltage by the resolution,
convert the quotient to an n-bit binary code, and then
add the sign bit.
 Quantization Error

resolution
Linear Qe 
2
Error

Quantization
 Example 2
• For the PCM coding scheme shown in
Figure 10-8, determine the quantized
voltage, quantization error (Qe) and PCM
code for the analog sample voltage of +
1.07 V.
 Solution
• To determine the quantized level, simply divide the
sample voltage by resolution and then round the answer
off to the nearest quantization level:

+1.07V = 1.07 = 1
1V

• The quantization error is the difference between the

original sample voltage and the quantized level, or Qe =
1.07 -1 = 0.07

• From Table 10-2, the PCM code for + 1 is 101.

 Dynamic Range
Vmax Vmax
DR    2 1
n

Vmin resolution
DR dB   20 log  2n  1
DR = dynamic range (unitless)
Vmin = the quantum value
Vmax = the maximum voltage magnitude of the DACs
n = number of bits in a PCM code (excl. sign bit)

For n > 4
DR  2  1  2
n n

 
DR dB   20 log 2n  1  20n log 2  6n
 Dynamic Range
No of Bits No of Levels DR (dB)
1 2 6.02
2 4 12
3 6 18.1
4 16 24.1
5 32 30.1
6 62 36.1
7 128 42.1
8 256 48.2
9 512 54.2
10 1024 60.2
11 2048 66.2
12 4096 72.2
13 8192 78.3
14 16348 84.3
 DELTA MODULATION
• Delta modulation uses a single-bit PCM code to achieve
digital transmission of analog signals.

• With conventional PCM, each code is a binary

representation of both the sign and the magnitude of a
particular sample. Therefore, multiple-bit codes are
required to represent the many values that the sample
can be.

• With delta modulation, rather than transmit a coded

representation of the sample, only a single bit is
transmitted, which simply indicates whether that sample
is larger or smaller than the previous sample.
 DELTA MODULATION
• The algorithm for a delta modulation
system is quite simple.

• If the current sample is smaller than the

previous sample, a logic 0 is transmitted.

• If the current sample is larger than the

previous sample, a logic 1 is transmitted.
DELTA MODULATION
 Differential DM
• In a typical PCM-encoded speech waveform, there are
often successive samples taken in which there is little
difference between the amplitudes of the two samples.

• This necessitates transmitting several identical PCM

codes, which is redundant.

• Differential pulse code modulation (DPCM) is designed

specifically to take advantage of the sample-to-sample
redundancies in typical speech waveforms.
 Differential DM
• With DPCM, the difference in the
amplitude of two successive samples is
transmitted rather than the actual sample.
Because the range of sample differences
is typically less than the range of individual
samples, fewer bits are required for DPCM
than conventional PCM.
 Signal-to-Quantization Noise Efficiency
V resolution
SQR  Qe 
2
Qe
For input signal minimum amplitude
SQR = minimum voltage / quantization noise

Vmin resolution
SQR min    2
Qe Qe
For input signal maximum amplitude
SQR = maximum voltage / quantization noise
Vmax
SQR max  
Qe
SQR is not constant
Linear vs. Nonlinear coding

Linear Nonlinear
 Companding
• Companding is the process of compressing and then
expanding
• High amplitude analog signals are compressed prior to
txn. and then expanded in the receiver
• It is a means of improving dynamic range
• Early PCM systems used analog companding, where as
modern systems use digital companding.
Companding

Higher amplitude
analog signals are
compressed

Dynamic range is
improved
PCM system with analog companding
-law companding


Vmax ln 1  
Vin 
V 
Vout   max 

ln  1   
 A-law companding
• A-law is superior to -law in terms of small-signal quality
• The compression characteristic is given by

 A| x | 1
 , 0 | x |
 1  log A A
y 
1  log( A | x |) 1
 , | x | 1

 1  log A A

where y=Vout
x=Vin / Vmax
Digital compression error
To calculate the percentage error introduced by digital
compression
%error=12-bit encoded voltage - 12-bit decoded voltage X 100
12-bit decoded voltage

PCM Line speed

It is the data rate at which serial PCM bits are clocked out of the
PCM encoder onto the transmission line
Line speed= samples X bits
second sample