Chapter 29

Magnetic Fields
A Brief History of Magnetism
 13th century BC
 Chinese used a compass
 Uses a magnetic needle
 Probably an invention of Arabic or Indian origin
 800 BC
 Greeks
 Discovered magnetite (Fe3O4) attracts pieces of iron
A Brief History of Magnetism, 2
 1269
 Pierre de Maricourt found that the direction of a
needle near a spherical natural magnet formed
lines that encircled the sphere
 The lines also passed through two points
diametrically opposed to each other
 He called the points poles
A Brief History of Magnetism, 3
 1600
 William Gilbert
 Expanded experiments with magnetism to a variety of
materials
 Suggested the Earth itself was a large permanent
magnet
A Brief History of Magnetism, 4
 1819
 Hans Christian Oersted

 Discovered the
relationship
between electricity
and magnetism
 An electric current
in a wire deflected a
nearby compass
needle
A Brief History of Magnetism,
final
 1820’s
 Faraday and Henry
 Further connections between electricity and
magnetism
 A changing magnetic field creates an electric field
 Maxwell
 A changing electric field produces a magnetic field
Magnetic Poles
 Every magnet, regardless of its shape, has
two poles
 Called north and south poles
 Poles exert forces on one another
 Similar to the way electric charges exert forces on
each other
 Like poles repel each other
 N-N or S-S
 Unlike poles attract each other
 N-S
Magnetic Poles, cont.
 The poles received their names due to the way a
magnet behaves in the Earth’s magnetic field
 If a bar magnet is suspended so that it can move
freely, it will rotate
 The magnetic north pole points toward the Earth’s north
geographic pole
 This means the Earth’s north geographic pole is a magnetic
south pole
 Similarly, the Earth’s south geographic pole is a magnetic
north pole
Magnetic Poles, final
 The force between two poles varies as the
inverse square of the distance between them
 A single magnetic pole has never been
isolated
 In other words, magnetic poles are always found
in pairs
 All attempts so far to detect an isolated magnetic
pole has been unsuccessful
 No matter how many times a permanent magnetic is
cut in two, each piece always has a north and south
pole
Magnetic Fields
 Reminder: an electric field surrounds any
electric charge
 The region of space surrounding any moving
electric charge also contains a magnetic field
 A magnetic field also surrounds a magnetic
substance making up a permanent magnet
Magnetic Fields, cont.
 A vector quantity
 Symbolized by B
 Direction is given by the direction a north pole
of a compass needle points in that location
 Magnetic field lines can be used to show how
the field lines, as traced out by a compass,
would look
Magnetic Field Lines, Bar
Magnet Example
 The compass can be
used to trace the field
lines
 The lines outside the
magnet point from the
North pole to the South
pole
 Use the active figure to
trace the field lines

PLAY
ACTIVE FIGURE
Magnetic Field Lines, Bar
Magnet
 Iron filings are used to
show the pattern of the
electric field lines
 The direction of the
field is the direction a
north pole would point
Magnetic Field Lines, Unlike
Poles
 Iron filings are used to
show the pattern of the
electric field lines
 The direction of the
field is the direction a
north pole would point
 Compare to the electric
field produced by an
electric dipole
Magnetic Field Lines, Like
Poles
 Iron filings are used to
show the pattern of the
electric field lines
 The direction of the
field is the direction a
north pole would point
 Compare to the electric
field produced by like
charges
Definition of Magnetic Field
 The magnetic field at some point in space
can be defined in terms of the magnetic
force,FB
 The magnetic force will be exerted on a 
charged particle moving with a velocity, v
 Assume (for now) there are no gravitational or
electric fields present
Force on a Charge Moving in a
Magnetic Field
 The magnitude FB of the magnetic force
exerted on the particle is proportional to the
charge, q, and to the speed, v, of the particle
 When a charged particle moves parallel to the
magnetic field vector, the magnetic force
acting on the particle is zero
 When the particle’s velocity vector makes any
angle  0 with the field, the force acts in a
direction perpendicular to both the velocity
and the field
FB on a Charge Moving in a
Magnetic Field, final
 The magnetic force exerted on a positive
charge is in the direction opposite the
direction of the magnetic force exerted on a
negative charge moving in the same direction
 The magnitude of the magnetic force is
proportional to sin , where  is the angle the
particle’s velocity makes with the direction of
the magnetic field
More About Direction

  
 FB is perpendicular to the plane formed by v and B
 Oppositely directed forces exerted on oppositely
charged particles will cause the particles to move in
opposite directions
Force on a Charge Moving in a
Magnetic Field, Formula
 The properties can be summarized in a
vector equation:
  
 FB  qv  B
 F is the magnetic force
B
 q is the charge
 v is the velocity of the moving charge
 B is the magnetic field
Direction: Right-Hand Rule #1
 The fingers point
 in the
direction of v

 B comes out of your
palm
 Curl your fingers
 in the
direction of B
 The thumb points  in the

direction of v  B which

is the direction of FB
Direction: Right-Hand Rule #2
 Alternative to Rule #1
 Thumb is in the
direction of v
 Fingers are in
 the
direction of B
 Palm
 is in the direction
of FB
 On a positive particle
 You can think of this as
your hand pushing the
particle
More About Magnitude of F
 The magnitude of the magnetic force on a
charged particle is FB = |q| v B sin 
  is the smaller angle between v and B
 FB is zero when the field and velocity are parallel
or antiparallel
  = 0 or 180o
 FB is a maximum when the field and velocity are
perpendicular
  = 90o
Differences Between Electric
and Magnetic Fields
 Direction of force
 The electric force acts along the direction of the
electric field
 The magnetic force acts perpendicular to the
magnetic field
 Motion
 The electric force acts on a charged particle
regardless of whether the particle is moving
 The magnetic force acts on a charged particle
only when the particle is in motion
More Differences Between
Electric and Magnetic Fields
 Work
 The electric force does work in displacing a
charged particle
 The magnetic force associated with a steady
magnetic field does no work when a particle is
displaced
 This is because the force is perpendicular to
the displacement
Work in Fields, cont.
 The kinetic energy of a charged particle
moving through a magnetic field cannot be
altered by the magnetic field alone
 When a charged particle moves with a given
velocity through a magnetic field, the field can
alter the direction of the velocity, but not the
speed or the kinetic energy
Units of Magnetic Field
 The SI unit of magnetic field is the tesla (T)
Wb N N
T 2  
m C ( m / s ) A  m
 Wb is a weber
 A non-SI commonly used unit is a gauss (G)
 1 T = 104 G
Notation Notes
 When vectors are
perpendicular to the
page, dots and crosses
are used
 The dots represent the
arrows coming out of the
page
 The crosses represent
the arrows going into the
page
Charged Particle in a Magnetic
Field
 Consider a particle moving
in an external magnetic field
with its velocity
perpendicular to the field
 The force is always directed
toward the center of the
circular path
 The magnetic force causes
a centripetal acceleration,
changing the direction of
the velocity of the particle
 Use the active figure to
change the parameters of
the particle and observe the
motion
PLAY
ACTIVE FIGURE
Force on a Charged Particle
 Equating the magnetic and centripetal forces:
mv 2
FB  qvB 
r
 Solving for r:
mv
r
qB
 r is proportional to the linear momentum of the
particle and inversely proportional to the magnetic
field
More About Motion of Charged
Particle
 The angular speed of the particle is
v qB
ω 
r m
 The angular speed, , is also referred to as the
cyclotron frequency
 The period of the motion is
2πr 2π 2πm
T  
v ω qB
Motion of a Particle, General
 If a charged particle moves
in a magnetic field at some
arbitrary angle with respect
to the field, its path is a
helix
 Same equations apply, with
v   v y2  v z2

 Use the active figure to vary

PLAY
ACTIVE FIGURE
Bending of an Electron Beam
 Electrons are
accelerated from rest
through a potential
difference
 The electrons travel in
a curved path
 Conservation of energy
will give v
 Other parameters can
be found
Particle in a Nonuniform
Magnetic Field
 The motion is complex
 For example, the
particles can oscillate
back and forth between
two positions
 This configuration is
known as a magnetic
bottle
Van Allen Radiation Belts
 The Van Allen radiation
belts consist of charged
particles surrounding the
Earth in doughnut-shaped
regions
 The particles are trapped by
the Earth’s magnetic field
 The particles spiral from
pole to pole
 May result in Auroras
Charged Particles Moving in
Electric and Magnetic Fields
 In many applications, charged particles will
move in the presence of both magnetic and
electric fields
 In that case, the total force is the sum of the
forces due to the individual fields
   
 In general: F  qE  qv  B
Velocity Selector
 Used when all the
particles need to move
with the same velocity
 A uniform electric field
is perpendicular to a
uniform magnetic field
 Use the active figure to
vary the fields to
achieve the straight line
motion
PLAY
ACTIVE FIGURE
Velocity Selector, cont.
 When the force due to the electric field is
equal but opposite to the force due to the
magnetic field, the particle moves in a
straight line
 This occurs for velocities of value
v=E/B
Velocity Selector, final
 Only those particles with the given speed will
pass through the two fields undeflected
 The magnetic force exerted on particles
moving at speed greater than this is stronger
than the electric field and the particles will be
deflected to the left
 Those moving more slowly will be deflected
to the right
Mass Spectrometer
 A mass spectrometer
separates ions
according to their
mass-to-charge ratio
 A beam of ions passes
through a velocity
selector and enters a
second magnetic field
 Use the active figure to
see where the particles
strike the detector array
PLAY
ACTIVE FIGURE
Mass Spectrometer, cont.
 After entering the second magnetic field, the
ions move in a semicircle of radius r before
striking a detector at P
 If the ions are positively charged, they deflect
to the left
 If the ions are negatively charged, they
deflect to the right
Thomson’s e/m Experiment
 Electrons are
accelerated from the
cathode
 They are deflected by
electric and magnetic
fields
 The beam of electrons
strikes a fluorescent
screen
 e/m was measured
Cyclotron
 A cyclotron is a device that can accelerate
charged particles to very high speeds
 The energetic particles produced are used to
bombard atomic nuclei and thereby produce
reactions
 These reactions can be analyzed by
researchers
Cyclotron, 2
 D1 and D2 are called
dees because of their
shape
 A high frequency
alternating potential is
applied to the dees
 A uniform magnetic
field is perpendicular to
them
Cyclotron, 3
 A positive ion is released near the center and
moves in a semicircular path
 The potential difference is adjusted so that
the polarity of the dees is reversed in the
same time interval as the particle travels
around one dee
 This ensures the kinetic energy of the particle
increases each trip
Cyclotron, final
 The cyclotron’s operation is based on the fact
that T is independent of the speed of the
particles and of the radius of their path
2 2 2
1 q BR
K  mv  2

2 2m
 When the energy of the ions in a cyclotron
exceeds about 20 MeV, relativistic effects
come into play
Magnetic Force on a Current
Carrying Conductor
 A force is exerted on a current-carrying wire
placed in a magnetic field
 The current is a collection of many charged
particles in motion
 The direction of the force is given by the
right-hand rule
Force on a Wire
 In this case, there is no
current, so there is no
force
 Therefore, the wire
remains vertical
Force on a Wire (2)
 The magnetic field is
into the page
 The current is up the
page
 The force is to the left
Force on a Wire, (3)
 The magnetic field is
into the page
 The current is down the
page
 The force is to the right
Force on a Wire, equation
 The magnetic force is
exerted on each
moving charge in the
wire
 

 F  qv d  B
 The total force is the
product of the force on
one charge and the
number of charges


 
  
F  qv d  B nAL
Force on a Wire, (4)
 In terms of the current, this becomes
  
FB  IL  B
 I is the current

 L is a vector that points in the direction of the
current
 Its magnitude is the length L of the segment
 B is the magnetic field
Force on a Wire, Arbitrary
Shape
 Consider a small 
segment of the wire, ds
 The force exerted on
this
 segment is

dFB  I ds  B
 The total force is
 b  
FB  I  ds  B
a
Torque on a Current Loop
 The rectangular loop
carries a current I in a
uniform magnetic field
 No magnetic force acts
on sides 1 & 3
 The wires areparallel
 to
the field and L  B  0
Torque on a Current Loop, 2
 There is a force on sides 2
& 4 since they are
perpendicular to the field
 The magnitude of the
magnetic force on these
sides will be:
 F2 = F 4 = I a B
 The direction of F2 is out of
the page
 The direction of F4 is into
the page
Torque on a Current Loop, 3
 The forces are equal
and in opposite
directions, but not
along the same line of
action
 The forces produce a
torque around point O
Torque on a Current Loop,
Equation
 The maximum torque is found by:
b b b b
τ max  F2  F4  (I aB )  (I aB )
2 2 2 2
 I abB
 The area enclosed by the loop is ab, so τmax
= IAB
 This maximum value occurs only when the field is
parallel to the plane of the loop
Torque on a Current Loop,
General
 Assume the magnetic
field makes an angle of
< 90o with a line
perpendicular to the
plane of the loop
 The net torque about
point O will be τ = IAB
sin 
 Use the active figure to
vary the initial settings
and observe the
resulting motion PLAY
ACTIVE FIGURE
Torque on a Current Loop,
Summary
 The torque has a maximum value when the
field is perpendicular to the normal to the
plane of the loop
 The torque is zero when the field is parallel to
the normal to the plane of the loop
   
   IA  B where A is perpendicular to the
plane of the loop and has a magnitude equal
to the area of the loop
Direction
 The right-hand rule can
be used to determine

the direction of A
 Curl your fingers in the
direction of the current
in the loop
 Your thumb points in
the direction of A
Magnetic Dipole Moment

 The product I A isdefined as the magnetic
dipole moment,  , of the loop
 Often called the magnetic moment
 SI units: A · m2
 Torque in terms of magnetic moment:
 
   B  

 Analogous to   p for
E electric dipole
Potential Energy
 The potential energy of the system of a
magnetic dipole in a magnetic field depends
on the orientation of the dipole in the
magnetic field:
 
U    B
 Umin = -B and occurs when the dipole moment is
in the same direction as the field
 Umax = +B and occurs when the dipole moment is
in the direction opposite the field
Hall Effect
 When a current carrying conductor is placed
in a magnetic field, a potential difference is
generated in a direction perpendicular to both
the current and the magnetic field
 This phenomena is known as the Hall effect
 It arises from the deflection of charge carriers
to one side of the conductor as a result of the
magnetic forces they experience
Hall Effect, cont.
 The Hall effect gives information regarding
the sign of the charge carriers and their
density
 It can also be used to measure magnetic
fields
Hall Voltage
 This shows an
arrangement for
observing the Hall
effect
 The Hall voltage is
measured between
points a and c
Hall Voltage, cont

 When the charge carriers are negative, the upper edge of the
conductor becomes negatively charged
 c is at a lower potential than a
 When the charge carriers are positive, the upper edge
becomes positively charged
 c is at a higher potential than a
Hall Voltage, final
 VH = EHd = vd B d
 d is the width of the conductor
 vd is the drift velocity
 If B and d are known, vd can be found
I B RH I B
 VH  
nqt t

 RH = 1 / nq is called the Hall coefficient