CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING
One of the oldest arts practiced by man is surveying.
From the earliest times, it has always been necessary to
mark boundaries and divide traces of land. Through the
centuries, the use of surveying have expanded such that
today it is difficult to undertake any type of engineering
construction that does not involve some type of
surveying.
Surveying Definition
•Surveying can be defined as the operation of making
such measurements that the relative positions of various
features, natural or artificial on the surface of the earth
can be exhibited in their correct horizontal and vertical
relationship, when drawn to a certain scale.
•Surveying is the art of measuring distances, angles, and
positions on or near the surface of the earth.
•Surveying is the art and science of determining angular
and linear measurements to establish the form, extent &
relative position of points, lines, and areas on or near
the surface of the earth or on other extraterrestrial bodies
through applied mathematics and the use of specialized
equipment and techniques.

How about Engineering Surveys?

•Engineering Surveys are defined as those activities
involved in the planning and execution of surveys for the
location, design, construction, maintenance, and
operation of civil and other engineering projects.
the surface of the earth or on other extraterrestrial bodies
through applied mathematics and the use of specialized
equipment and techniques.

How about Engineering Surveys?

•Engineering Surveys is defined as those activities
involved in the planning and execution of surveys for the
location, design, construction, maintenance, and
operation of civil and other engineering projects.
 CLASSIFICATIONS OF SURVEY

A. General Classifications

1.Plane Surveying- the type of surveys in which the earth

is considered to be a flat surface and where the distances
involved are the limited extent that the exact shaped of
the earth is disregarded. Approximately 200km² is
considered to be a small area for survey.
2. Geodetic Surveying- is surveys of wide extent which
take into account the spheroidal shape of the earth.
B. Based from the instrument used
1.Chain Survey-all distances are measured with the chain
and no angular measurements are made.
2. Prismatic Compass Survey -the bearings of lines are
measured with a prismatic compass. The lengths lines are
measured with a chain or tape.
3. Theodolite Survey – angular measurements are
observed with an accurate instrument called the
theodolite.
4. Plane Table Survey-the field observations are
plotted on the field. The method is most commonly
employed for plotting details.
5. Tacheometric Survey –the tacheometer is an
instrument by which distances are differences in
heights of different points can be computed from
certain observations on the instrument without
actual measurements.
6. Aerial and Photographic Survey-with the help
of aerial photographs, the details can be plotted
while sitting in the office.
B. Based upon the method used
1. Triangulation –when the scheme of control
points is established through a network of
triangles.
2. Traversing-scheme of controls point consisting
of series of connected lines. When the last line
meets the starting point, it is called a closed
traverse. It is an open traverse of it does not meet
the starting point.
Triangulation
Closed Traverse
 TYPES OF SURVEYS

1.Cadastral Survey (also known as Property Surveys or

Land Surveys)

are usually closed surveys which are undertaken in

urban and rural locations for the purpose of determining
and defining property lines and boundaries, corners and
areas.
2. City Surveys
are surveys of the areas in and near a city for a purpose of
planning expansions or improvements, locating property
lines and fixing reference monuments.
3. Construction Survey – are performed to lay out, locate,
and monitor public and private engineering works.
4. Forestry Survey - a type of survey executed in connection
with forest management and mensuration, and the production
and conservation of forest land.
5. Hydrographic Surveys - refer to surveying bodies of
water like streams, lakes, rivers for the purpose of
navigation, water supply or subaqueous construction.
6. Industrial Surveys - sometimes known as the “optical
tooling”. It refers to the use of surveying techniques in
ship building, construction and assembly of aircraft.
7. Mine Surveys-are surveys which are performed to
determine the positions of all underground excavations
and surface mine structures.
8. Photogrammetric Surveys - a type of survey which
makes use of photograph taken with specially designed
cameras either from airplanes or ground stations.
9. Route Survey – refers to those control, topographic, and
construction surveys necessary for the location and
construction of lines of transportation or communication,
such as highways, railroads, canals, transmission lines,
and pipelines.
10. Topographic Surveys- are made to secure data from
which may be made a topographic map indicating the
configuration of the terrain and the location of natural and
human – made objects.
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS
1.Astrolabe - The instrument had a
metal circle with a painter hinged
at its center and held by a ring at
the top.
2. Telescope - the invention of the transit is
credited to Young and Draper who worked
independently from each other sometime is
1830.
3. Transit - the invention of the transit
is credited to Young and Draper
who worked independently from each
other sometime is 1830.
4. Semicircumferentor - used to measure
and lay off angles, and establish
lines of sight by employing peep sight.

5. Plane Table - it consists of board

Attached to a tripod in such a way that
it can be leveled or rotated to any
desired direction.
6. Dioptra - it was perfected by Heron
of Alexandria, was used in leveling
and for measuring horizontal and
vertical angles.

7. Roman Groma - it is used for

aligning or sighting points.
8. Libella - it has an A-frame
with a plumb line suspended
from its apex and was
used to determine the horizontal.
9. Vernier - is a short auxiliary
scale placed alongside the
graduated scale of an
instrument by means of which
fractional parts of the smallest
or least division of the main scale.
10. Diopter - used for leveling, laying
off right angles and for measuring
horizontal and vertical angles.

11. Compass - consist of

magnetized steel needle mounted
on a pivot at the center of a
graduated circle.
12. Gunter’s Chain - it is 66 ft. long
and contains 100 links so that
distances may be recorded in chains
and in decimal parts of the chain.

13. Chorobates - consists of a

horizontal straight-edge about
6 meters long with supporting
legs, and a groove 2.5 cm deep
and 1.5m long on top.
 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

Linear Measurements Foot Units

1 mile = 5280 feet 1 foot = 12 inches
= 1760 yards 1 yard = 3 feet
= 320 rods 1 rod = 16 1/2 feet
= 80 chains 1 chain = 66 feet
1 chain = 100 links
 Linear Measurements
Metric (SI) Units
1 kilometer = 1000 meters
1 meter = 100 centimeters
1 centimeter = 10 millimeters
1 decimeters = 10 centimeters
1 hectare (ha) = 10,000 m2
1 square kilometer = 1,000,000 m2
= 100 hectares
 Foot to Metric Conversion

1 ft = 0.3048 m (exactly)
1 inch = 25.4 mm (exactly)
1 km = 0.62137 miles
1 hectare (ha) = 2.471 acres
1 km2 = 247.1 acres
 ANGULAR MEASUREMENT

SEXAGESIMAL UNITS CENTESIMAL UNIT

(degree, minute, second) (grad or grade)
1 revolution = 360⁰ 1 revolution = 4 000 000gon
1 degree = 60’ (used in some Europian countries)
1 minute = 60“(seconds) 400 grads = 360°
ERROR - the difference between the measured or
observed value and the true value. Since no measurement
can be performed perfectly (except for counting), it
follows that every measurement must contain some error.
Types of Errors
1. Systematic Errors- is one which will always have the
same sign and magnitude as long as field conditions
remain constant and unchanged.
2. Accidental Errors (Random Errors) -are caused by
factors beyond the control of the surveyor and is present in
all surveying. This is associated with the skill and
vigilance of the surveyor.

SOURCES OF ERRORS
1.Instrumental Errors - are due to imperfections in the
instruments used, either from faults in their construction
or from improper adjustments between the different parts
prior to their used.
2. Natural Errors - are caused by variations in the
phenomena of nature such as changes in
Magnetic declination, temperature, humidity, wind,
refraction, gravity and curvature of earth.
3. Personal Errors - these errors arise principally from
limitations of the sense of sight, touch and hearing of the
human observer which are likely to be erroneous or
inaccurate.
MISTAKES- are blunders made by survey personnel.
Examples of mistakes are transposing figures (recording a
value of 68 as 86), miscounting the number of full tape
lengths in a long measurement.
ACCURACY - refers to the closeness between the
measured and true values. The farther the measured
quantity to the true value, the less accurate it is.

PRECISION – refers to the degree of refinement and

consistency with which any physical measurement is
made. It is portrayed by the closeness to one another of a
set of repeated measurements of a quantity.

MOST PROBABLE VALUE - refers to a quantity which

based on available data, has more chances of being correct
than has any other.
DISCREPANCY – the difference between the measured
values of the same quantity.

RESIDUAL – sometimes referred to as the duration, it is the

difference between any measured value of a quantity and it’s
most probable value.
v = x-x ̅

Where:
v = residual
x = measurement made of a particular quantity
x ̅ = most probable value of the quantity measured
PROBABLE ERROR – is a quantity which, when added to
and subtracted from the most probable value, defines a range
within which there is a 50 percent chance that the true value
of the measured quantity lies inside (or outside) the limits
thus set.
Probable Error of any single measurement

Probable Error of the mean

RELATIVE PRECISION (ACCURACY RATIO) - also
called relative error, is expressed by a fraction having the
magnitude of the error in the numerator and the magnitude
of the measured quantity in the denominator. It is necessary
to express both quantities in the same units, and the
numerator is reduced to unity or in order to provide an easy
comparison with other measurements.
INTERRELATIONSHIPS OF ERRORS
Two commonly applied principles of the theory of errors
involve the summation of errors and the product of errors.

1. Summation of errors – if the several measured quantities

are added, each of which is affected by accidental errors, the
probable error of the sum is given by the square root of the
sum of the squares of the separate probable errors arising
from the several sources or
2. Product of Errors – for a measured quantity which is
determined as the product of two other independently
measured quantities such as Q1 and Q2 (with their
corresponding probable errors), the probable error of the
product is given by the following equation.
 MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL DISTANCES

1. Distance by Pacing
Pacing consist of counting the number of steps or paces in a
required distance. A pace is defined as the length of steps in
walking. It may be measured from heel to heel or from toe
to toe. A stride is equivalent to two paces or double step.

Factors affecting the length of one’s pace:

a. Fatigue d. Slope of the ground
b. Weight of shoes and clothing e. Speed of pacing
c. Roughness of the ground
In order to determine the distance using pacing, it is required
to get the product of the pace factor and the average number
of paces.

PF = pace factor (m/pace)

Problem:
In five trials of walking along a 90m course on fairly level
ground, a pacer for a survey party counted 51, 52.5, 52.5,
51.5 and 51.5 strides respectively. He then started walking
an unknown distance XY in four trials which were recorded
as follows: 88.5, 89, 88 and 87 strides. Determine the
following:
a. Pace factor of the pacer.
b. Length of line XY
2. Distance by taping
The use of a graduated tape is probably the most common
method of measuring or laying out horizontal distances.
Taping consist of stretching a calibrated tape between two
points and reading the distance indicated on the tape.
Some of the instruments used in taping are the following:
a.Measuring tapes – are made in a
variety of lengths, materials and
weights. Graduation marks and
numbers are etched, stamped or
printed on the tape.
Steel tape – it is also known
as surveyor’s or engineer’s tape
which is made of a ribbon of steel
0.5 to 1.0cm in width and weighs
0.8 to 1.5kg per 30m. Lengths of
10, 20, 30, 50 and 100m are available.
The 30-m is the most common.
STANDARD CONDITION FOR USE OF STEEL TAPES

Foot System Metric System

1. Temperature = 68°F 1. Temperature = 20°C
2. Tape fully supported 2.Tape fully supported
throughout. throughout
3. Under a tension of 10 lbs. 3. Under a tension of 50N
(1 lb force = 4.448N)
b. Plumb Bob. These are used for projecting
the tape ends to the ground when the
tape must be suspended above the measured
line. Plumb bobs used should weigh at
least 0.25kg and must be attached to
a 1.5m long string or cord which is free of knots.
c. Range Poles are also known as flags or
lining rods and are used as temporary signals
to indicate the location of points or the
direction of lines and to mark alignment.
They are circular, hexagonal or octagonal
in cross-section and with one end pointed.
The usual length is 2.0 and 3.0m and it
may be a wood, metal or fiberglass.
They are marked or painted with alternate
red and white sections 30 or 50cm long
which can be used for approximate measurements
d. Wooden Stake or Hub. Stakes or hubs are
made of 5cm x 5cm x 30cm wood to mark
points, corners or stations on the ground.
These temporary markers are required in
staking out a building or structure, running
the centerline of a proposed road and in
staking out any line or grade. The top of the
hub is usually marked by driving a nail
or tack into its center.
e. Tape Clamping Handle. With its
scissor-type handle, tape clamps are
used to apply tension with a quick grip on any part of steel
tape without causing damage to the
tape or hands of the tapeman. A slight
bend or kink on the tape may result if
a tape is held and pulled without clamp.
f. Tension Handle. This is also called spring
scale and is used at one end of a tape for
ensuring the application of the correct
amount of pull on the tape during
measurement.
g. Tape Thermometer. Thermometers
are used to determine the temperature
of the air and the approximate temperature
of the tape during measurement.
Those used in the field are about 10 to
15cm long and are usually graduated
from -30°C and +50°C in 2° or 5° divisions.
h. Chaining Pins. These are sometimes called
surveyor’s arrows or taping pins. They are
stuck in the ground to mark the ends of
measured tape lengths or partial tape lengths
and may also be used in place of wooden
hubs or stakes. Most pins are made of heavy
wire about 30cm long, are pointed at one
end have a round loop at the other end and
painted with alternate red and white bonds.
Sets of eleven pins carried on a steel ring
or loop are standard.
i. Leather Thongs. A leather thong
is attached to a ring located near the
zero-meter mark of the tape to provide
a comfortable grip on the tape when
measuring.
3. Distance by Tachymetry

a. Stadia Method
The instrument for stadia measurements consist of a
telescope with two horizontal hairs called stadia hairs and a
graduated rod called stadia rod. The distance from the
telescope to the rod is found by proportional relationships in
similar triangles.
Problem:
A stadia rod held at a distant point B is sighted by an
instrument set up at A. The upper and lower stadia hair
readings were observed as 1.3 and 0.9m respectively. If the
stadia interval factor is 100 and the instrument constant (c)
is zero, determine the length of line AB.

D = Ks + c
= 100 (1.3 – 0.90) + 0
= 40m
 1.30m

0.90m

A B
b. Subtense Bar Method
The subtense bar is a convenient and practical device used
for quick and accurate measurement of horizontal distances.
The bar is precisely 2meters long, consist of a rounded steel
tube through which runs a thin invar rod.
Tan(α/2) = (S/2)/D = (2/2)/D = 1/D D = 1/ Tan(α/2)
BREAKING TAPE
A slope is sometimes too steep to permit an entire tape
length to be held horizontal. When this occurs, shorter
measurements are taken, each with the tape held horizontal;
these shorter measurements are then totaled to provide the
overall dimension. This technique is called BREAKING
TAPE.
SLOPE TAPING
CORRECTION IN TAPING

Taping operations could either be of the following taping to

determine an unknown length, or taping for the purpose of
laying but a required length. Regardless of which of these
two categories is involved, there are some corrections which
are applied to the original measurements to determine the
correct and more accurate length.
Corrections to taping are applied by the use of the following
rules:
1st rule: when a line is measured with a tape that is “too
long”, the corrections are applied to the observed length by
adding.

2nd rule: when a specified or required length is to be laid out

with a tape that is “too long”, the correction are subtracted
from the known length to determine the corrected length to
be laid out.
30m
3rd rule: when measuring or laying out lengths with tape
that is “too short”, the corrections are applied opposite to
those stated in the first rules.
 SUMMARY

too long too short

Measure + -

Lay out - +
CORRECTIONS DUE TO INCORRECT TAPE LENGTH

The absolute value for the corrections per tape length (corr)
is determined from the difference between the true or actual
length of the tape (TL) and the nominal length of tape (NL)
or corr = TL – NL

C1=corr (ML/NL)

CL=ML ± C1
Problem:
1. A rectangular lot was measured using a 50-m steel tape which was found to be
0.025m too short. If the recorded length and width of the lot are 180.455m and
127.062m respectively, determine the following:
a. Actual dimensions of the lot 180.365m x 126.998m
b. Error in area introduced due to the erroneous length of the tape

Error (area) = measured area – corrected area = 22.975m 2

Measured area = (180.455m x 127.062m) = 22, 928.970m2
Corrected area = 180.365m x 126.998m = 22, 905.994m

ML = 180.455m

ML = 127.062m
Problem:
1. A rectangular lot was measured using a 50-m steel tape
which was found to be 0.025m too short. If the recorded
length and width of the lot are 180.455m and 127.062m
respectively, determine the following:
a. Actual dimensions of the lot
b. Error in area introduced due to the erroneous length of the
tape.
2. A building 38m x 45m is to be laid out with a 50m long
metallic tape. If during standardization, the tape is found to
be only 49.950m, determine the following:
a. Dimension to be laid out, using this tape, in order that the
building shall have the desired dimensions.
b. Using the same tape, what should the diagonals read?
CORRECTIONS DUE TO SLOPE
When distances are measured along the slope, the equivalent
horizontal distance may correspondingly be determined by
applying an approximate slope correction.
Note: when a distance is measured along a sloping ground,
there always exist a correction due to slope and it is
subtracted from the slope distance to get the corrected
horizontal distance
Corrections Due to Slope

a. Gentle Slopes (less than 20%)

b. Steep Slopes (between 20 & 30%)

c. Very Steep Slopes (> 30%)

CORRECTION DUE TO TEMPERATURE

Tapes used in surveying measurements are standardized at a

specific temperature. Since measurements are taken at
temperature which may vary significantly from the
temperature at which the tape was standardize, tapes may be
either too long or too short.

The corrections applied to the length of the tape due to

change in temperature, 𝐶𝑡 is given by the formula
CORRECTION DUE TO TENSION
The correction due to tension is given by

CL= ML ± Cp
Cp = total elongation in tape length due to pull or the
correction due to incorrect pull applied on the tape
Pm = pull applied to the tape during measurement
Ps = standard pull for the tape or pull for which the rape is
calibrated
L = measured length of line
CORRECTION DUE TO TENSION

The correction due to tension is given by

A = cross-sectional area of the tape = W/(L (unit weight))

E = modulus of elasticity of the tape material = (P/A)/(e/L)
CL = corrected length of the measured line
W = total weight of the tape
P = Pm-Ps
CORRRECTION DUE TO SAG

A tape attains its correct length when it is fully supported

and subjected to the pull for which it was standardized. If
the tape is supported only at its ends or at the two points
measured, it will sag even if the standard pull is maintained
because of its own weight.
NORMAL TENSION

Normal tension is the amount of pull required to move the

end points coincide with the marked points on the pavement.
Theoretically, the elongation due to increased tension can be
made equal to the shortening due to sag by equating the
correction due to tension to the correction due to sag.
COMBINED CORRECTIONS

The corrections for the effect of incorrect length of tape,

temperature, tension, slope and sag may be combined as a
single net correction per tape length. Each correction is
computed separately and it is important to identify which
correction tends to make the tape too long or too short.

Since the sign of each correction can be determined during

computation, it is then a matter of adding these quantities
algebraically to arrive at a single and overall correction to
lengths which are measured or laid out.
COMBINED CORRECTIONS
1. A line was determined to be 2395.25m when measured with a
30-m steel tape supported throughout its length under a pull of
4kg at a mean temperature of 35ºC. Determine the correct length
of the line if the tape used is of standard length at 20ºC under a
pull of 5kg. The cross – sectional area of the tape is 0.03cm2, its
coefficient of linear expansion is 0.0000116/ºC, and the modulus
of elasticity of steel is 2.0 x 106 kg/cm2.

2. A 50-m steel tape is of standard length under a pull of 5.5kg

when supported its entire length. The tape weighs 0.05kg/m, A =
0.04cm2, E = 2.1 x 106 kg/cm2. This tape was used in the field to
measure a distance that was determined to be 458.60m. At the
time of measurement, the constant pull was 8kg with the tape
supported only at its end points. Determine the correct length of
the line.
SURVEYS WITH TAPE
The tape is not necessarily limited only to the measurement
of distances. There are various problems arising in surveying
fieldwork which can be solved just by the use of tape. Some
of these surveying operations include the following:
1.Erecting Perpendicular to Line (Chord – Bisection
Method)
2. 3:4:5 Method
2. Measurement of Angles with Tape

1.Chord Method
2. Measurement of Angles with Tape

2. Angles with Tape

Determining Obstructed Distances

In some instances, it may not be possible to directly measure

a distance due to an obstruction. The required length may
also be inaccessible or difficult to measure