ITT300

Introduction To Data Communication and Networking

Chapter 4

Data Encoding

Mazlan Osman, FSKM, UiTM (Terengganu) 2019

 4-1 DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION

• In this section, we will discuss how we can represent digital data by using digital

signals.
• The representation involves three techniques:
• line coding
• block coding
• scrambling.

3.35
 LINE CODING

• Process of converting digital data (sequence of bits) to digital signals

• At the sender, digital data are encoded into a digital signal; at the receiver, the digital signal are
decoded into digital data.

Figure 3.17 Line coding and decoding

3.36
 DATA ELEMENT AND SIGNAL ELEMENT

• Data element : The smallest entity that can represent a piece of information (bit).
• Signal element : The shortest unit (timewise) of a digital signal to carry data
element.
• Data elements are what we need to send; signal elements are what we can send

3.37
 DATA ELEMENT AND SIGNAL ELEMENT

Figure 4.1 Signal element versus data element

4.5
 DATA RATE AND SIGNAL RATE

• Data rate : The number of data elements (bits) sent in 1s. Unit : bps
• Signal rate : The number of signal elements sent in 1s. Unit : baud
• Relation between data rate and signal rate (baud rate):

S = c x N x 1/r
• Example 4.1

A signal is carrying data in which one data element is encoded as one signal element ( r = 1). If the bit rate is 100

kbps, what is the average value of the baud rate if c is 0.5?

Solution

The baud rate is then

4.6
 LINE CODING SCHEMES

NRZ and Manchester

Figure 4.2 Line coding schemes

4.7
 UNIPOLAR SCHEME

Uses only one voltage level

• Positive voltage defines bit 1 and the zero voltage defines bit 0

Figure 4.3 Unipolar NRZ scheme

4.8
 POLAR SCHEME

NRZ-L (Non-Return To Zero)

Bit 1 is represented by negative voltage; bit 0 is represented by positive voltage.

Manchester

Bit 1 is represented by negative-to-positive transition; bit 0 is represented by positive-

to-negative transition.

4.9
 POLAR SCHEME

Figure 4.4 NRZ-L and Manchester schemes

4.10
 4-2 DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION

• Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing one of the characteristics of an analog

signal based on the information in digital data.

Figure 4.8 Digital-to-analog conversion

 DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION

Data Elements Vs Signal Elements

• Data element : Smallest piece of information to be exchanged, it means, the bit.
• Signal element : Smallest unit of a signal that is constant.

Data Rate Vs Signal Rate

• Bit rate (N) is the number of bits per second. Baud rate (S) is the number of signal elements per
second.
• Relationship between S and N:
S = N x 1 baud ( r = log2L )
r
• The baud rate is less than or equal to the bit rate.
 DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION

• Example 4.1
An analog signal carries 4 bits per signal element. If 1000 signal elements are sent

per second, find the bit rate.

• Example 4.2
An analog signal has a bit rate of 8000 bps and a baud rate of 1000 baud. How

many data elements are carried by each signal element? How many signal elements

do we need?
CARRIER SIGNAL

• A high-frequency signal that acts as a basis for the information signal produced by
sender.
• Digital information then modulated on the carrier signal by modifying one or more
its characteristic (amplitude, frequency or phase).
• This process is called modulation (shift keying) and the information signal is called
modulation signal.
• The middle of the bandwidth is called carrier frequency, fc.
DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION

Figure 4.9 Types of digital-to-analog conversion

 AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING
• In ASK, the amplitude of the carrier signal is changed to create signal elements
• Both frequency and phase remain constant

Binary ASK (BASK)

• A popular ASK technique is called on-off keying (OOK) whereas the peak amplitude of one signal
level is 0

Figure 4.10 Binary amplitude shift keying

BANDWIDTH FOR ASK

B = (1 + d) x S

where B is bandwidth, S is baud rate and d is a factor related to the modulation process (value

of d is between 0 and 1)

Example 5.3

We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans from 200 to 300 kHz. What are the

carrier frequency and the bit rate if we modulated our data by using ASK with d = 1?

Figure 4.12 Implementation of binary ASK

BANDWIDTH FOR ASK

Solution

The middle of the bandwidth is located at 250 kHz. This means that our carrier frequency can

be at fc = 250 kHz. We can use the formula for bandwidth to find the bit rate (with d = 1 and

r = 1).
 FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING

• In FSK, the frequency of carrier signal is varied to represent data

• Both peak amplitude and phase remain constant

Binary FSK (BFSK)

Figure 4.13 Binary frequency shift keying

5.19
 BANDWIDTH FOR FSK

B = (1 + d) x S + 2∆f

where B is bandwidth, S is baud rate, d is a factor related to the modulation process (value between 0 and 1), and 2∆f is difference

between 2 frequencies
• Example 5.5

We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans from 200 to 300 kHz. What should be the carrier frequency and the

bit rate if we modulated our data by using FSK with d = 1?

Solution

This problem is similar to Example 5.3, but we are modulating by using FSK. The midpoint of the band is at 250 kHz. We

choose 2Δf to be 50 kHz; this means

PHASE SHIFT KEYING

• In FSK, the phase of the carrier is varied to represent two or more different signal elements.
• Both amplitude and frequency are remains constant

Binary PSK (BPSK)

Figure 4.14 Binary phase shift keying

BANDWIDTH FOR PSK

• Same as that for BASK, but less than that for BFSK. No bandwidth is wasted for separating
two carrier signals

• Example 5.7
Find the bandwidth for a signal transmitting at 12 Mbps for QPSK. The value of d = 0

Solution

For QPSK, 2 bits is carried by one signal element. This means that r = 2. So the signal rate

(baud rate) is S = N × (1/r) = 6 Mbaud. With a value of d = 0, we have B = S = 6 MHz

Figure 4.15 Implementation of BASK

CONSTELLATION DIAGRAM

• Define the relationship between amplitude and phase of a signal elements, particularly when
using two carriers (one in-phase and one quadrate).

Figure 4.16 Concept of a constellation diagram

CONSTELLATION DIAGRAM

Figure 4.17 Constellation diagrams for ASK (OOK)

CONSTELLATION DIAGRAM

Figure 4.18 Constellation diagrams for BPSK

CONSTELLATION DIAGRAM

Figure 4.19 Constellation diagrams for QPSK