Module III: Research and Program

Evaluation in Community Psychology

 Aims of Community Research
• Prevention of problems
• Conducting surveys and awareness programs
• To promote social justice and equality
• To develop sense of community
• Need assessment of the different sectors of
community
• Developing effective interventions
• Conducting research
• Promoting quality of life in various members of
community
 Methods of Community Research
Both quantitative and qualitative:

• Observation
• Survey
• Case study
• Interviews
• Focus group discussions
• Field experiments
• Ex post facto research
 Qualitative Research
Qualitative Research is primarily exploratory research. It
provides insights into the problem or helps to develop
ideas or hypotheses for potential quantitative research.
Qualitative Research is also used to uncover trends in
thought and opinions, and dive deeper into the problem.
Qualitative data collection methods vary using
unstructured or semi-structured techniques.
 Quantitative Research
Quantitative Research is used to quantify the problem by
way of generating numerical data or data that can be
transformed into usable statistics. It is used to quantify
attitudes, opinions, behaviours, and other defined
variables and generalize results from a larger sample
population. Quantitative data collection methods are
much more structured than Qualitative data collection
methods.
 Observation
Controlled Observation:
Controlled observations (usually a structured
observation) are likely to be carried out in a
psychology laboratory. The researcher decides where
the observation will take place, at what time, with
which participants, in what circumstances and uses
a standardised procedure.
Limitations:
Controlled observations can lack validity due to the
Hawthorne effect/demand characteristics. When
participants know they are being watched they may
act differently. 
Strengths:

1. Controlled observations can be easily replicated. This

means it is easy to test for reliability.

2. The data obtained from structured observations is easier

and quicker to analyze as it is quantitative, making this a less
time consuming method compared to naturalistic
observations. 

3. Controlled observations are fairly quick to conduct which

means that many observations can take place within a short
amount of time.
 Naturalistic Observation
Naturalistic observation (i.e. unstructured observation)
involves studying the spontaneous behaviour of
participants in natural surroundings. The researcher simply
records what they see in whatever way they can.
Strengths:
• By being able to observe the flow of behaviour in its own
setting studies have greater ecological validity. 

• Like case studies naturalistic observation is often used to

generate new ideas. Because it gives the researcher the
opportunity to study the total situation it often suggests
avenues of enquiry not thought of before.
Limitations:

• These observations are often conducted on a micro (small) scale and

may lack a representative sample (biased in relation to age, gender,
social class or ethnicity). This may result in the findings lacking the
ability to be generalized to wider society.

• Natural observations are less reliable as other variables cannot be

controlled. This makes it difficult for another researcher to repeat the
study in exactly the same way.

• A further disadvantage is that the researcher needs to be trained to be

able to recognise aspects of a situation that are psychologically
significant and worth further attention. 

• With observations we do not have manipulations of variables (or

control over extraneous variables) which means cause and effect
relationships cannot be established. 
 Participant Observation
It means the activities of a group in which an observer
himself participate and note the situation. He willingly mixes
with the group and perform his activities as an observer not
merely a participator who criticize the situation. In other
words he takes place and share the activities with his
group. 
For example: when we study the rural and urban conditions
of Asian people, we have to go there and watched what is
going on. The best philosophy of participant observation is
that we watch the phenomena not to ask. The actual
behaviour of the group can be observed only by participant
observation not by any other method.
Merits:
• The observer is personally involved in group activities
and shares their feelings and prejudices.
• He participate himself and get insight into the
behaviour of the group.
• It motivates and stimulates mutual relationship b/w
the observer and observe.
• He can get more information’s with accuracy and
precision.
Demerits:
• The observer may develop emotional attachment to
his group which will lose the objectivity of the study.
• Cannot observe a certain phenomenon in a short
time available to him.
• Cannot cover a wide area through this method.
 Non-Participant Observation
• The non-participant observation has a lack of
participation of the observer in his group activities. He
either watch the phenomena from a distance or
participate in the group but never in its activities. He only
sit in the group but do not interest in the process.
• The difference between participant & non-participant
observation is that, the observer himself take part in a
group and become the member of that group also
participate in their activities with full fledge.
• In non-participant observation, he watch from a distance
and do not participate in the activities.
Merits:
• Although observer himself never attach to the group
but the objectivity maintained.
• Less emotional involvement of the observer leads to
accuracy and greater objectivity.
• Through non-participant observation the research
remains very smooth.
Demerits:
• Do not have full knowledge about the group activities.
• Cannot understand the whole phenomena.
• Cannot get real and deep insight into the phenomena.
 Survey
A survey is a data collection tool used to gather
information about individuals. Surveys are
commonly used in psychology research to collect
self-report data from study participants. A survey
may focus on factual information about
individuals, or it might aim to obtain the opinions
of the survey takers. Surveys are one of the most
commonly used research tools and can be utilized
to collect data
• A survey can be used to investigate the characteristics,
behaviours, or opinions of a group of people.
• A survey can be administered in a couple of different
ways. In one method known as a structured interview,
the researcher asks each participant the questions. In
the other method known as a questionnaire, the
participant fills out the survey on his or her own.
• Surveys are generally standardized to ensure that they
have reliability and validity. Standardization is also
important so that the results can be generalized to the
larger population.
 Advantages of using Surveys
One of the big benefits of using surveys in psychological
research is that they allow researchers to gather a large
quantity of data relatively quickly and cheaply.
• Surveys allow researchers to collect a large amount of data in
a relatively short period.
• Surveys are less expensive than many other data collection
techniques.
• Surveys can be created quickly and administered easily.
• Surveys can be used to collect information on a broad range
of things, including personal facts, attitudes, past behaviors,
and opinions.
 Disadvantages of Using Surveys
• Poor survey construction and administration can
undermine otherwise well-designed studies.
• The answer choices provided on a survey may not be an
accurate reflection of how the participants actually feels.
• The social desirability bias can lead people to respond in
a way that makes them look better than they really are.
For example, a respondent might report that they engage
in more healthy behaviours than they do in real life.
 Types of Survey Data Collection
Some of the most common ways to administer survey
include:
Mail - An example might include an alumni survey
distributed via direct mail by your alma mater.
Telephone - An example of a telephone survey would
be a market research call about your experiences with a
certain consumer product.
Online - Online surveys might focus on your experience
with a particular retailer, product or website.
At home interviews - The U.S. Census is a good
example of an at-home interview survey administration.
 Case Studies
• Case studies are in-depth investigations of a single person,
group, event or community. Typically, data are gathered from
a variety of sources and by using several different methods
(e.g. observations & interviews). The research may also
continue for an extended period of time, so processes and
developments can be studied as they happen.
• Case studies are often conducted in clinical medicine and
involve collecting and reporting descriptive information about
a particular person or specific environment. In psychology,
case studies are often confined to the study of a particular
individual. This information is mainly biographical and relates
to events in the individual's past, as well as to significant
events which are currently occurring in his or her everyday
life.
Strengths of Case Studies:
• Provides detailed (rich qualitative) information.
• Provides insight for further research.
Limitations of Case Studies:
• Can’t generalize the results to the wider population.
• Researchers' own subjective feeling may influence
the case study (researcher bias).
• Difficult to replicate.
• Time consuming.
 Interview
The interviewer in one-to-one conversation
collects detailed personal information from
individuals using oral questions. The interview is
used widely to supplement and extend our
knowledge about individual(s) thoughts, feelings
and behaviours. Or how they think they feel and
behave. Interviews can give us
both quantitative and qualitative data about
participants' thoughts, feelings and behaviours. 
Structured Interview:
• This is also known as a formal interview (like a job interview).
• The questions are asked in a set / standardized order and the
interviewer will not deviate from the interview schedule or
probe beyond the answers received (so they are not flexible).
Strengths:
• Structured interviews are easy to replicate as a fixed set of
closed questions are used, which are easy to quantify – this
means it is easy to test for reliability.

• Structured interviews are fairly quick to conduct which means

that many interviews can take place within a short amount of
time. This means a large sample can be obtained resulting in
the findings being representative and having the ability to be
generalized to a large population.
Limitations:
• Structure interviews are not flexible. This means new
questions cannot be asked impromptu (i.e. during
the interview) as an interview schedule must be
followed.

• The answers from structured interviews lack detail as

only closed questions are asked which
generates quantitative data. This means a research
will won't know why a person behaves in a certain
way.
 Unstructured Interview
• These are sometimes referred to as ‘discovery
interviews’ & are more like a ‘guided conservation’
than a strict structured interview. They are sometimes
called informal interviews.
• An interview schedule might not be used, and even if
one is used, they will contain open-ended
questions that can be asked in any order. Some
questions might be added / missed as the Interview
progresses.
Strengths:
• Unstructured interviews are more flexible as questions can be
adapted and changed depending on the respondents’ answers.
The interview can deviate from the interview schedule. 

• Unstructured interviews generate qualitative data through the

use of open questions. This allows the respondent to talk in
some depth, choosing their own words. This helps the
researcher develop a real sense of a person’s understanding of a
situation.

• They also have increased validity because it gives the

interviewer the opportunity to probe for a deeper
understanding, ask for clarification & allow the interviewee to
steer the direction of the interview etc.
Limitations:
• It can be time consuming to conduct an unstructured
interview and analyze the qualitative data (using
methods such as thematic analysis).

• Employing and training interviewers is expensive, and

not as cheap as collecting data via questionnaires.
For example, certain skills may be needed by the
interviewer. These include the ability to establish
rapport & knowing when to probe.
 Focus Group Discussions
A focus group discussion (FGD) is a good way to
gather together people from similar backgrounds
or experiences to discuss a specific topic of
interest. The group of participants is guided by a
moderator (or group facilitator) who introduces
topics for discussion and helps the group to
participate in a lively and natural discussion
amongst themselves.
 Limitations of Focus Group Discussion

• Unlike questionnaires and interviews, the Focus Group

Discussion method is not a good way to obtain
numerical information,
• When interpreting the information gathered through
FGD, one should remember that the consensus that
usually forms in a group does not necessarily represent
the opinions of all the members. Frequently, a few
individuals tend to dominate the discussion and the less
assertive people tend not to contribute. Thus, FGD may
not be a representative method of data collection.
 Field Experiments:
Field Experiments take place in real-life settings such as
a classroom, the work place or even the high street.
Field experiments are much more common in sociology
than laboratory experiments.
Advantages:
• Better external validity 
• Larger Scale Settings
Limitations:
• Deception/ Lack of Informed Consent is an issue
• Reliability is a problem
• Extraneous variables
 
 Ex Post Facto 
An ex post facto research design is a method in which
groups with qualities that already exist are compared on
some dependent variable. Also known as "after the fact"
research, an ex post facto design is considered quasi-
experimental because the subjects are not randomly
assigned - they are grouped based on a particular
characteristic or trait. 
For example, a researcher is interested in how weight
influences self-esteem levels in adults. So the participants
would be separated into differing groups (underweight,
normal weight, overweight) and their self esteem levels
measured. This is an ex post facto design because a pre-
existing characteristic (weight) was used to form the
groups.
Merits:
• It is considered as a very relevant method in those
behavioural researches where the variables can not
be manipulated or altered
• It is more useful than an experimental research as it
can be used in analysing a cause on basis of the
effect, which is impossible in an experimental
research.
• It is less time consuming as well as economical.
Limitations:
• As discussed earlier, in an ex-post facto research, the
researcher can not manipulate the independent
variables.
• The researcher can not randomly assign the subjects
to different groups.
• The researcher may not be able to provide a
reasonable explanation for the relationship between
the independent and dependent variables under
study.
 Models of Mental Health
1. Clinical Models:
Custodial:
In this model patient is the victims of a psychiatric
condition, therefore professional care must be
imposed by society, for his sake and the welfare of
others. It is in this sense that the model is described
as custodial. Patient are often committed involuntary,
but even if admitted at their own request, the
hospital takes over the major responsibility for their
lives. The patient condition is usually viewed as a
diseases likely of biological origin. Patient are given
drugs, electroshock, and other somatic therapies.
Therapeutic:
What is common to all approaches within
“therapeutic” model is faith in the efficacy of
psychological intervention of one or another sort,
for bringing about desirable changes in patient. In
this model clinicians work directly with the patient
and Interventions are offered by professionally
trained mental health worker.
2. Community Model
Clinical Pole:
At the clinical pole, intervention methods are
generally of the same type as in the therapeutic
model, though adapted to the special needs and life
style of particular communities.
Service is offered in setting that are less professional
frequently in collaboration with family members and
community “caretakers” sometime with the help of
specially trained community members.
The present problems of the client and his immediate
social behaviour are more the focus concern than his
life history, personality organisation and functioning.
Public Health Pole:
Here the shift is from direct involvement with the
human problems of particular people toward efforts
to alter some of the social condition which affect
whole communities. The family, schools, police,
factory and social ecology in which the person lives
are more important then the thinking, feelings or
actions of that person.
3. Social Action Model:
According to this model the goals of mental health
might be best achieved by influencing major social
programme. The social action model focuses
on structural inequalities as the root cause of
community distress. It argues that the medical
model of curing the individual is only a 'band aid'
approach. The main aim of the social action model
of community psychology is to mobilise
communities to put pressure on institutions to bring
about the necessary structural changes that will
improve the quality of people’s lives.