Unit 1.

Phrases – clauses - sentences

1.Phrases
1. Definition
- A group of one or more than one words, which is equivalent
to a part of speech.
- Structure: (Pre-modification) + Head + (Post-
modification)
2. Kinds of phrase: 5
a, Noun phrase (NP): a phrase in which there is a noun as a
head
girls
Nhead  NP
a beautiful girl
premod. Nhead  NP
a beautiful girl in the class
premod. Nhead postmod.  NP
b, Adjective phrase (Adj.P): a phrase in which there is
an adjective as a head
beautiful
Adj.head  Adj.P
more beautiful than I am
premod. Adj.head postmod. Adj.P
c, Adverb phrase (Adv.P): a phrase in which there is an
adverb as a head
slowly
Advhead  Adv.P
more slowly than I did
premod. Advhead postmod.  Adv.P
d, Prepositional phrase (Pre.P):
in the class
pre. NP
 Pre.P: a noun phrase dominated by a preposition
e, Verb phrase (VP): a group of one or more than one
verbs in which there is a verb as a head.

- Structurally, there are 2 kinds of VP:

Finite VP
VP
Nonfinite VP ‘To’ Inf.NFVP
- Inf.NFVP
Bare Inf. NFVP
- -Ing participle NFVP
- -Ed participle NFVP
• Finite verb phrase: a verb phrase whose verb element
agrees with the subject in person and number.
He is a student.
3rd person, sing. 3rd person, sing.
FVP – simple
I have learnt English.
FVP - complex

• Non – finite verb phrase: a verb phrase whose verb

element does not agree with the subject in person and
number.
• Infinitive NFVP:
- “To” inf. NFVP:
To learn English is difficult.
- Bare inf.NFVP:
Run away is what I could do then.

• -Ing participle NFVP:

My duty is learning English.
# She is learning English.

• -Ed participle NFVP:

Asked a lot of questions, she was tired.

Cf. Finite and Non finite verb phrase

• Finite VPs • Non-finite VPs
• Finite VPs (V, V-s & V-ed1, etc.) • Non-finite VPs (to V, V-ing & V-
have tense and mood of a certain ed2) do not have tense and
type. mood.
They want to go there then.
They go there very often. She enjoyed watching TV.
He goes there twice a week. Can be used either with Present
(Tense: past; mood : indicative) or Past tense)
We went there yesterday.
(Tense: past; mood : indicative)
• Finite VPs often have their own
• Non-finite VPs may have but
subject.
more often do not have their S.
If she liked, she could go.
For him to go there is difficult.
S + V-ed1
S + to infinitive
• Finite VPs often appear in the
• Non-finite VPs often perform the
simple, compound or complex
sentence (making up finite function of S, O, C or A of the
clauses) main finite clause and make up
the complete complex sentence.
 2. Clauses

I. Definition: a part of a sentence, conveying an

independent supposition

II. Clause elements : S, V, O, C, A

1. Object:
- Direct object (Od.):
I like him.
S V Od
- Indirect object (Oi) + Od:
I gave him a book.
SV Oi Od
2. Complements:
+ Subject complement (Cs): describe or indicate the
characteristics or features of subject - after copular
verbs (link verbs)
- BE group: be, appear, seem, feel, look, see, sound,
smell, taste…, expressing the current attribute:
He appears tired.
S V Cs
- BECOME group: become, come, get, go, grow, turn,…,
expressing the resulting attribute:
He becomes famous.
S V Cs
+ Object complement (Co): describe or indicate the
characteristics or features of object:
She painted the door red.
S V Od Co
Example:
He drove me mad.
They elected him chairman.
I have my car repaired.
I saw her sleeping in the garden.
He made me cry.

Practice:
They found her a good wife.
S V Oi Co
They found him a good wife.
S V Oi Od

They found a good wife for him.

He gave a book to me.
+ Adjective complements (Cadj.)
I’m happy to meet you.
SV Cs Cadj.
+ Prepositional complement (Cpre.)
She is interested in making up all day.
S V Cs Cadj.

3. Adverbials:
- Semantically: adverb of time, place and process
(manner)
He worked hard at school then.
S V Amanner Aplace Atime
- Functionally: 3 kinds
- Adjuncts: integrated in the structure of the clause
He worked carefully.
S V A adjunct (How)

- Disjuncts: peripheral to the structure of the clause

Carefully, he worked .
A disjunct S V

(generally speaking, in fact, to be honest, to tell the truth…)

- Conjuncts: peripheral to the structure of the clause and connective

function
Secondly, you have to learn French.
A conjunct S V Od

(finally, on the other hand, in brief, that’s why, in other words, in

addition, moreover, in conclusion, what’s more, further more)

Ex. 5, 7
III. Classification
1, According to usage: 2
+ Independent clause:
- Simple sentence : Tom saw Mary.
- Compound sentence: Tom saw Mary and he ran away.
- Complex sentence : When Tom saw Mary, he ran away.
+ Dependent clause: When he saw Mary, he ran away.

2. According to clause elements and verb complementation:

7 kinds
S, V, O, C, A
SV
SVA
SVC
SVO
SVOA
SVOC
SVOO
- S + V(intransitive) : He has arrived.
- S + V(intensive) + Adverb : He is in the garden.
- S + V(intensive) + Cs : He looks tired.
- S + V(mono transitive) + Od : I read his letter.
-S + V(complex transitive) + O + A:
They put him in a good position.
- S + V(complex transitive) + Od + Co:
He made me happy.
-S + V(di transitive)+ Oi + Od:
He gave me his book.

INTENSIVE
V intransitive
EXTENSIVE mono-transitive
transitive di-transitive
complex transitive
Ex. 98
3, According to Verb phrase structures (Structural
classification): 3
Finite clause “to” inf. NFC
Infinitive
Cl Non-finite clause bare inf. NFC
-Ing participle NFC
Verbless - Ed participle NFC

a, Finite clauses: a clause whose verb element is a finite

verb phrase.
He is a student.
FCl.

b, Non-finite clauses: a clause whose verb element is a

non -finite verb phrase.
- Infinitive NFC:
+ “To” infinitive non – finite clause:
To learn English is difficult.
+ Bare infinitive non – finite clause:
All I did was hit him on his head.
-Ing participle non – finite clause:
The teacher being ill, we missed our lesson.
<-> As the teacher was ill, we missed our lesson.
- Ed participle non – finite clause:
Given a beautiful present, she was happy.
<-> Because she was given a beautiful present, she was
happy.
His job finished, he went home.
<-> When his job was finished, he went home.
c, Verbless clause: a clause whose verb element is
absent
He went to bed angry.
verbless
<-> When he was angry, he went to bed.
She stayed at home jobless.
<-> Because she was jobless, she stayed at home.
Ex: 11

4, According to syntactic function of the clauses: 2

- Independent clauses (main/super ordinate) :
He ran away when I turned out.
- Dependent clauses (sub-clause/subordinate)
What he wants is what I want.
 Functionally: I think that you can do it if you try.
c

b
a

‘a’ is the superordinate to ‘b’ or ‘c’ is the subordinate to ‘b’

‘b’ is the superordnate to ‘c’ ‘b’ is the subordinate to ‘a’

Structurally: FCl
FCl
FCl
Cl.elements + V.complementation:

s v

S V O A

S V O
* According to the syntactic functions of sub-clauses: 4
kinds
- Nominal clauses: (S, O, C)
What I want is not what he wants.
I wonder whether he’ll come or not.
I know you are rich.
I enjoy listening to music.
I want to learn English.
- Relative clauses:
The man who was standing at the door is my brother.
Defining relative clause
- Comment clauses:
Generally speaking, he is honest.
- Adverbial clauses:
After having breakfast, he went to school.
Ex: 4, 6
 Chart of clauses classification
C la u s e c la s s if ic a tio n

U s a g e

I n d e p e n d e n t c la u s e : W h e n T o m s a w M a r r y , h e r a n a w a y
D e p e n td e n t c la u s e : W h e n T o m s a w M a r r y , h e r a n a w a y
C la u s e e le m e n t & v e r b c o m p le m e n ta t io n

S + V ( in t r a n s it iv e ) : H e h a s a r r iv e d
S + V ( in t e n s iv e ) + A : H e is in t h e g a d e r n
S + V ( in t e n s iv e ) + C s : H e lo o k s tir e d
S + V ( m o n o t r a n s it iv e ) + O d : I lo v e y o u
S + V ( c o m p le x t r a n s it iv e ) + O + A : T h e y p u t h im in a g o o d p o s it io n
S + V ( C o m p le x t r a n s it iv e ) + O d + C o : T h e y m a d e m e h a p p y
S + V ( d it r a n s it iv e ) + O i + O d : H e g a v e m e h is b o o k
V e rb p h ra s e s tru c tu re

F in it e c la u s e : H e is a s t u d e n t
N o n - f in it e c la u s e

I n f in it iv e n o n - f in it e c la u s e

" T o " in f in it iv e n o n - f in it e c la u s e : M y d u t y is t o r e m in d h im o f h is t a s k
" B a r e " in f in it iv e n o n - f in it e c la u s e : A ll I d id w a s h it h im o n h is h e a d
- I n g p a r t ic ip le n o n - f in it e c la u s e : G o in g h o m e , I d id s o m e s h o p p in g
- E d p a r t ic ip le n o n - f in it e c la s u e : H is jo b f in is h e d , h e w e n t h o m e
V e r b le s s c la u s e : W h e n a lit t le g ir l, I u s e d t o g o to s c h o o l o n fo o t
S y n ta x tic fu n c tio n

In d e p e n d e n t c la u s e
D e p e n d e n t c la u s e

N o m in a l : I b e liv e y o u a r e r ig h t
R e la t iv e : T h e m a n w h o is s t a n d in g a t th e d o o r is m y b r o t h e r
C o m m e n t : G e n e r a l s p e a k in g h e is h o n e s t
A d v e r b : A f t e r h a v in g b r e a k f a s t , h e w e n t t o s c h o o l
 3. Sentences
I. Definition
An English sentence must have the subject that
governs the verb and a finite verb phrase.

II. Sentence elements

1. Traditional classification: Subject + Predicate
He told her the way to cook.
2. Modern classification: S-V-O-C-A
He told her the way to cook.
S V Oi Od
Obligatory: 7 pattern clauses
Optional: Adverb of place/time
She went to London last Sunday.
Aplace Atime
Ex: 99
III. Classification

1. According to communicative functions (purposes of

utterances): 4

a. Statements (Declarative): usually with the word order:

S-V
- Affirmative: : I’ll speak to him tonight. (+)
- Negative: I won’t speak to him. (-)

b. Questions (Interrogative): Normally with the inversion

of the first auxiliary verb or modal verb - called the
operator - and the subject.
Do you like cat?
Op S
• Questions are sentences marked by one or more of
these three criteria:
- The placing of the operator in front of the subject (S-
operator inversion):
Do you like coffee?
- The initial positioning of an interrogative or “Wh-”
element:
What do you like?
- Rising intonation: You know him?
Ex: 15

c. Commands (imperative): sentences which have no

overt grammatical subject and whose verb element is
in imperative:
V
Don’t + V
- Without subject: Be careful.
Don’t be silly.
 - With subject: Someone open the door.
Don’t someone open the door.
- With ‘let’ Let’s go.
Let him know.
Don’t let him go.
Let him not go.
Ex: 118

d. Exclamations: sentences which have an initial

phrase introduced by “what” or “how” without the
inversion of subject and operator.
How + adj/adv + S + V! How beautiful she is!
What +NP + S +V! What a beautiful girl she is!

Sometimes, we have verbless utterances in

exclamation (in spoken language)
2. According to their structures

T ra d d i o n a l M o d e rn

S im p le Com pound C o m p l e x s e n te n c e M ix e d S im p le C o m p le x
I like you.
Simple sentence

I told him this but he didn’t believe me.

1st indep. cl. 2nd indep. cl.

I know that you’re honest.

____ S V C = sub. clause
S V O = main clause
 Cf: Phrases – Clauses - Sentences
Phrases - Word group: (Premod) + Head + (Postmod) - Conceptual meaning

- Head: equivalent to a part of speech

Clauses - Dependent or independent language units - (In)complete meaning

- Sentence/ part of setences -

S V; S, VO, C, A
Sentences - Independent language unit: SV - Complete meaning
 Grammatical units
Sentences Sentences
are analyzed into are used to build
Clauses Clauses
are analyzed into are used to build
Phrases
Phrases
are used to build
are analyzed into
Words
Words are used to build
are analyzed into Morphemes
Morphemes