NCM 311-NURSING RESEARCH

Prepared by: Art Bryan Arcinas

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 LESSON XIV
ANALYSIS AND
INTERPRETATION OF
DATA
LESSON XIII LESSON XV
ANALYTIC DISSEMINATION
PHASE PHASE
ANALYTICAL PHASE
Analytic phase is closely
aligned with the empirical
phase. After data are collected,
the data is prepared for analysis.

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 Quantitative data - is typically entered into a statistical software program and Qualitative
data is often transcribed verbatim to facilitate data analysis.
- is defined as the value of data in the form of counts or numbers where
each data-set has an unique numerical value associated with it.

 Qualitative data - is often evaluated for accuracy by comparing audiotapes to

transcriptions.
- is the descriptive and conceptual findings collected through
questionnaires, interviews, or observation

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 Descriptive statistics - are used to describe the sample characteristics which enhances the
interpretation of other analyses. It is important to evaluate the outcome of the sampling
plan and determine whether study participants are representative of the larger population
in quantitative research and whether participants provided rich data in qualitative research.

 For Quantitative analysis, instruments are evaluated for reliability and validity.
Assumptions of statistical tests also need to be evaluated before inferential statistics are
completed

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 For qualitative analysis, transcripts or field notes are reviewed and entered into a database.
While different qualitative methodologies specify different data analysis methods, in
general, the qualitative data analysis includes reducing data by coding significant
statements, identifying themes, and drawing conclusions (Miles & Huberman, 1994)

 Once data is analyzed, results need to be interpreted to determine the meaning and
importance of findings.

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 STATISTICAL MEASUREMENTS IN
RESEARCH
Generally, to make
―decision.
Why Study Statistical techniques are
Statistics? used to make decisions that
affect our daily lives
(without knowing it)

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 Functions of Statistics

1. Statistics provides 2. Statistics shows 3. Statistics shows

researchers the means to
4. Statistics observes
the laws underlying relations of cause trends and behavior in
scientifically measure the
conditions that may be facts and events that and effect that related conditions which
involved in a given problem cannot be otherwise may otherwise may remain
and evaluating the way in determined by
which these conditions are remain unknown. unclear.
individual
related.
observation.
 Importance of Statistics to Research

Statistics  Statistics forces  Statistics enables  Statistics enables the

the researcher to the researcher to researcher to draw general
permits the be definite and summarize results conclusions. The process of
most exact kind exact in his in a meaningful extracting conclusions is
of description. procedures and in and convenient carried out according to
his thinking. form. accepted rules.
 Objectives of Researcher in Studying Statistics

2. To determine 3. To interpret
4. To determine the
where to apply statistical results
basic mathematics
appropriate correctly and
in statistics.
statistical tools in vividly.
1. To comprehend different research
the logic of problems and where
statistics. not to apply them.
5. To master the
language of
statistics
Categories of Statistics:

A. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
- Is concerned with the gathering,
classification and presentation of data
and the collection of summarizing
values to describe group characteristics
of data.

Examples: average salary, means of

managerial satisfaction, and average
return of investment.
 Uses of Descriptive statistics:
a. Measures and condenses data in:
 Frequency distribution – scores are tested from highest to lowest or from
lowest to highest.
 Graphic presentation – data are presented in graphic form to make frequency
distribution data readily apparent.

b. Measures of central tendency - used to describe the mean, median and mode.
 Measures of Central Tendency
1. Mean - is the "average" you're used to

Mean = X ÷ n
where:
X=sum of scores
n=number of scores
-Sum of score divided by the number of scores
- Average
 Measures of Central Tendency
2. Median - 50th percentile
-Middle score
-Need to order scores in a frequency distribution
-Found from cumulative percent column

3. Mode - most frequently occurring score.

Point measures Measures of relativity
 -quartile  -coefficient of variation
 -decile  -coefficient of quartile deviation
 -percentile
Measures of Skewness
Measures of Variability  -positively skewed
 range 173  -negatively skewed
 quartile deviation
 average deviation Measures of kurtosis
 -variance  –leptokurtic
 -standard deviation  -platykurtic
 B. INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
 pertains to the methods of dealing with making inference, estimates or prediction about a
large set of data using information gathered.

 It is not merely to provide a description of a particular data set but also to make
inferences or predictions based on the available information gathered.

 - It is concerned with population and the use of sample data to predict future occurrences
.
 B. INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
Examples:
1. Significant relationship between job satisfaction and performance of
employees.

2. Significant difference on the impact of new advertisement and age

groups.
 Uses of inferential statistics
iii. To estimate population parameter, the following facts are considered using inferential
statistics:
 Sampling error which is the difference between data obtained from a random
sampled population and data that would be obtained if an entire population is
measured. 174 Sampling error also occurs when the sample does not accurately
reflect the population. 
 Sampling distribution is a theoretical frequency distribution based on an infinite
number of samples. The researcher never actually draws an infinite number of
samples from a population.
 Sampling bias occurs when samples are not carefully selected as in non-
probability sampling.

iv. Testing the Null hypothesis

 Steps in testing a null hypothesis are as follows:

a. State the b. State the null c. Choose the d. Determine the level of
research hypothesis to be appropriate significant difference, the
treated statistical test for relationship or correlation
hypothesis between the given variables in
the given data
order to reject or accept the null
hypothesis, depending on
significant level.
 Common statistical tools of inferential stat:
1. Pearson r

2. Chi-square - Relationship between nominal (frequency counts) variables Example:

Should a staffing plan for emergency nurses be adjusted based on time of day? Data:
# of emergency patient arrivals every 3 hrs. over a week.

3. T-test – compares the responses of two respondent groups in the study on the
phenomenon under investigation. It is used when responses are interval data.
 Common statistical tools of inferential stat:
4. F-Test or ANOVA (One-Way Analysis of variance) – this is a statistical procedure for
testing mean differences among three or more groups by comparing variability between
groups by comparing variability between groups to variability within groups.

5. Correlation Coefficient

6. Multiple Regression Analysis – is used to correlate more than two variables. The
microstat software in which the formula is embedded is used.
 Terms Used in Statistics
Variable – is a numerical characteristics or attribute associated with the
population being studied.
 Classifications of Variables
1. Qualitative Variable yields categorical or qualitative responses. It refers
to the characteristics or attributes of the samples. Examples: civil status,
religious affiliation, blood type, performance rating

2. Quantitative – are variables that are classified according to numerical

characteristics. Examples: height, weight, number of children, pulse rate
 Statistical tools for Treatment of Data
Once the research data have been gathered, the researcher has to tabulate,
organize, analyze, and present them into tables or graphs, etc. Basic
statistical tools:

1. Percentage (P) – is computed to determine the proportion of a part to a

whole such as a given number of respondents in relation to the entire
population.
 Statistical tools for Treatment of Data
Example: The percentage of female patients in a hospital suffering from mental illness
vis a vis the total number of mentally ill patients.
Formula:

Where: P = percentage f = frequency of responses n = total number of respondents

 Statistical tools for Treatment of Data
2. Weighted mean (WM) – refers to the overall average of responses/perceptions of the
study respondents. It is the sum of its product of the frequency of responses and the
Likert five-point scale.

Unit weight Weighted Mean Verbal Interpretation

Interval (*)
 ANALYSIS AND
INTERPRETATION
OF DATA
 Presentation of data
 This refers to the organization of data into tables, graphs or charts, so that logical and
statistical conclusions can be derived from the collected measurements.
 The presentation of study results should be systematic and logical and expressed in
the past tense. This contains general findings, and not raw data. It should be supported
by statistics..
 PRESENTATION OF DATA
1. Findings of the study – study results are presented based on empirical data or
facts. Data must be reported in an objective process and written in the present
001 or past tense.

• Findings – are the results of data analysis which include description of

samples, analysis, and interpretation of the test of hypotheses.
• Descriptive statistics -is used to present findings
• Inferential techniques – are used to predict and generalized results after
the hypotheses are tested.
 PRESENTATION OF DATA
2. Presentation of findings – findings of the study are presented in various ways

a. Textual form – the data gathered are presented in paragraph form. Data are written and read. It is a
002 combination of text and figures. This consists of statements with numerals or numbers to describe data. It is
supported by:
 Direct quotes
 - Summary of findings
 - Meanings and implications of the study based on theories
 - Related literature
 - Research findings

Example: Of the 150-sample interviewed, the following complaints were noted: 27 for lack of
book in the library, 25 for a dirty playground, 20 for lack of laboratory equipment, 17 for a not
well-maintained university building.
 b. Tabular form – it is the means used in organizing and presenting data in a systematic way in
which numerical or statistical data are arranged in rows and columns to make them easily
003 understood and interpreted.
Tabular data are presented in the following ways:
2. Rows – horizontal entries
3. Columns – vertical entries
4. Cells – are boxes where rows and columns intersect
 Parts of a statistical table

1. Table number - tables must be numbered consecutively for preference purposes. Table numbers are
cited when presenting the numerical value of the study.
2.  Title – the title of each table states the variables or specific indicators of the study, from whom
the data were gathered and the manner of measuring the data.
3. Headnote – this is written below the title, usually enclosed in parenthesis. It explains data on the
table that are not clear.
4.  Stub – this contains the sub-head and the row labels. The sub head tells what the subs contain.
Each row label describes the data contained in that row.
 Parts of a statistical table

5. Box head – contains the master captions that describe the column captions, and the column captions, in
turn, describes the sub-column captions.
7. Main body, field, or text – this contains all the quantitative and qualitative information presented in the
table in rows and columns.
8. Footnote – appears immediately below the bottom line of the tables. It explains, qualifies or clarifies
items in the table that are not understandable or are missing.
9. Textual presentation of tabular data - information presented in tables are discussed in textual form. It
appears after they have been referred to in the text. Textual presentation may precede the table of the table
may be placed within the textual presentation.
Parts of a statistical table
 e. Graphical/Figures – are visual presentations of processed data.
004 They include graphs, diagrams, line drawings, and photographs.

These helps enliven a narrative presentation and considered a concrete

means of presenting research results:
 Kinds of graphs or diagrams

1. Bar graph – used to show relationships/comparison between groups

 Kinds of graphs or diagrams

2. Pie or circle graph – shows percentages effectively

 Kinds of graphs or diagrams

3. Line graph – most useful in displaying data that changes continuously

overtime
 Kinds of graphs or diagrams

4. Pictograph/pictogram - it uses small identical or figures of objects called

isotopes in making comparisons. Each picture represents a definite quantity
 Preparation of tables and graphs

Following are suggested rules (Reyes, 1998) in preparing tables and graphs:
1. Tables and graphs should include only qualified items of information.
2. They should possess clear and unified purposes.
3. They should be preceded by introductions that explain them
4. They should be placed close to the discussion of facts related to them in
the text.
5. They should be constructed and presented in manners that can be
understood even without referring to the text.
6. They should comprehensively present data Example: rounding off
numbers to two decimal places, dash (-) is entered to show that there is
no omitted data.
 Preparation of tables and graphs

In writing captions or tittles of tables and graphs, the following should be

observed:
1. Captions of titles must be clear and concise and must specifically
identify what the tables or graphs contain
2. Abbreviations should not be used in titles,
3. Table titles are places above the table. Captions are placed below the
figures and graphs.
4. Capitalized first word and all principal words of the caption
5. Captions should have no end punctuation.
 Styles and format for writing captions of tables and graphs are:

1. The inverted pyramid format:

_______________________________
____________________
___________
2. Block style format
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________

3. Paragraph style format

__________________________
__________________________________
__________________________________
C. Interpretation of findings – a subjective section of a research report which allows the researcher to
discuss findings in the light of the theoretical framework factual observations, interview results, and within
the context of the literature review.
It also explains results that are consistent with previous researches and those that are not in agreement, as
well as problems that occurred during the study which may have influenced the results
Analysis and interpretation are generated when statistical data are presented in clear and concise form.
Data presented in tabular (table) or graphical (graph) forms enable the researcher to examine the findings
thoroughly.
Narratives on the analysis and interpretation of the study findings should protect the rights of the subjects
or the name of institution or agency where the study was conducted. They should not be identified. They
should be described in general terms.
D. Interpretation of results of the Test on the Null hypothesis – is always done
in context of the objectives. Research hypotheses- predict study results based
on the theoretical framework or on previous research studies.

Inferential statistics are used to either accept or reject the null hypothesis
and to support action taken through explanation of the implications of the
acceptance and rejection made.
E. Conclusions The logical outgrowth of the summary of findings are conceptualizations and
generalizations in response to the problems raised in the study. Conclusions focus on the answers to
the major problem, particularly on the results of the test on the null hypotheses with each
corresponding implications and analysis of findings.
When writing conclusions, the researcher should remember that findings are not conclusions.

Example:
Study finding is stated: There is a significant decrease in the anxiety level of patients before
abdominal surgery who have been entertained with music.
Conclusion should be written as: Music appears to be an effective means of decreasing anxiety
levels in the patients.
F. Implications
This portion of the study provides the researcher an opportunity to promote changes or
innovations in the curriculum or hospital procedures, etc.
In so many ways, implications are written to call for improvement on the traditional or
conventional manner of doing things or making things happen in people‘s behaviors and practices,
and in the environment for a quality kind of life.
The shoulds that are reflected from the study results are contained in the implications. These are
stated in the following ways:
Nursing students should….;
Nurse administrator should ….;
Clinical insructors should …;
Nursing students should….., and others.

The researcher should see to it that every conclusion of the study has an implication.
G. Recommendations
Considering the conclusions, the researcher suggests solutions to the problems to prevent the
occurrence of these or minimize their impact or effect. 189
It is addressed to the sectors concerned or the intended beneficiaries of the research study for
their adoption and or implementation.
These are also intended to improve the particular discipline or field of study.
Example: Director of nursing service
Deans of colleges of nursing
Nurse practitioners
Clinical instructors
Student nurses
Health care clientele
General public Interest groups
Government and non-government agencies
 The Dissemination Phase
The last phase of the research process is to prepare research
reports in order to communicate findings to the appropriate
audience. Similar to review of a final research plan, noted
previously, dissemination reports should also be peer-
reviewed from independent colleagues in the same field of
research who have not participated in the conduct of the
study. The peer-review process of completed reports will
ensure objectivity and increase likelihood of a valid and
reliable report.
 The Dissemination Phase
Traditional research reports include:
• an introduction;
• a description of the method;
• results;
• discussion of major findings;
• and clinical, research and/or policy implications.
• Brief research or policy reports should provide a concise
and interesting description of the results with key points
highlighted. Press releases should also be brief with
recommendations clearly specified.
RESEARCH MANUSCRIPT
Writing a manuscript which ultimately allows your
work to become part of the ―body of knowledge‖.
Development od a manuscript involves the careful
inclusion of all the relevant information so that you
research can be understood as well as replicated by
others.

What is the difference between a manuscript and an

article?
The simplest way to understand it is this: Manuscript
= Written paper pre-publication
Article = Written paper that has been published
 TITLE
001 003
The quick brown fox jumps over The quick brown fox jumps over
the lazy dog. The quick brown fox the lazy dog. The quick brown fox
jumps over the lazy dog. jumps over the lazy dog.

002 004
The quick brown fox jumps over The quick brown fox jumps over
the lazy dog. The quick brown fox the lazy dog. The quick brown fox
jumps over the lazy dog. jumps over the lazy dog.
Insert Title Insert Title Insert Title Insert Title

Presentation of data
 This refers to the organization of data into tables, graphs or charts, so that logical and
statistical conclusions can be derived from the collected measurements.
 The presentation of study results should be systematic and logical and expressed in the past
tense. This contains general findings, and not raw data. It should be supported by statistics..
 TOPIC TITLE

The quick brown fox The quick brown fox The quick brown fox The quick brown fox
jumps over the lazy dog. jumps over the lazy dog. jumps over the lazy dog. jumps over the lazy dog.
The quick brown fox The quick brown fox The quick brown fox The quick brown fox
jumps over the lazy dog.. jumps over the lazy dog.. jumps over the lazy dog.. jumps over the lazy dog..
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067
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