NAVIGATION 3

NAUTICAL
ASTRONOMY AND
CELESTIAL
NAVIGATION
(PART 1) 1
 CELESTIAL NAVIGATION
(CELO- NAVIGATION)
- An art of solving problems of positions and
direction of the earth’s surface by the application of
the principles of astronomy, especially Nautical
Astronomy in which by Navigation at Sea or in Air,
a navigator need not be an astronomer but should
understand terms of specific use to celestial
navigation and the understanding of the general
nature of the universe in which to observed.

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ASTRONOMY- a science that deals with the
size, constitution, motion, relative positions
and other important scientific data of celestial
bodies.

KINDS OF ASTRONOMY
1.DESCRIPTIVE ASTRONOMY – consist of an
orderly statement of astronomical facts
ascertained by scientific and systematic
observations and principles theoretically
derived from scientific descriptive facts.
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2. GRAVITATIONAL ASTRONOMY
-Also known as “Celestial Mechanics” that
treats of the dynamic principles to account
for motions of heavenly bodies.

- PHYSICAL ASTRONOMY
– also known as “Astrophysics” that treats
with the principal conditions, chemical
constitution and temperature of celestial
bodies.
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4. PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY
-treats of the methods of making
astronomical observations deducing from
them the values of certain important
quantities used in Navigation and
Surveying.

SPHERICAL ASTRONOMY
- treats of the application of geometry
determine relative positions of celestial
bodies including the earth.
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 6. NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY
-also known as “Navigational
Astronomy” which deals with
astronomy principally used by the
navigators comprising principally the
study of the celestial coordinates,
time and apparent motions of
celestial bodies with respect to the
earth.
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 MOTIONS OF
BODIES OF THE
SOLAR SYSTEM:

Celestial bodies in
the Solar System
have two Principal
motions:

1. Rotation – is a spinning motion about an

axis within the body.

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2. Revolution – is the motion of a body in it’s
elliptical orbit around another body called primary.
For the satellites the primary is a planets. For the
planets and other bodies of the solar system the
primary is the Sun.

Rotation and Revolution maybe classified as

synodic or siderial.

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3. SYNODIC Motion - the body makes
one complete turn relative to the sun. On
the earth it is called an “apparent solar
day”

4. SIDEREAL Motion – the body makes

one complete turn relative to the stars.
Because of the motion of the body in its
orbit, a sidereal rotation is either longer or
shorter by a small amount than a synodic
rotation.

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5. SPACE MOTION – motion of the
celestial bodies in group (ex. Solar
System) relative to the surrounding bodies
(ex. Stars)

6. APPARENT MOTION- motion relative

to a specified or implied reference point,
which may itself be in motion.

7. ABSOLUTE MOTION- motion

relative to a fixed point or reference.
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 The hierarchies of motions in the universe are caused by
the force of gravity. As a result of gravity, bodies attract each
other in proportion to their masses and to the inverse square of
the distances between them. This force causes the planets to go
around the sun in nearly circular, elliptical orbits.
In each planet’s orbit, the point nearest the Sun is called
the perihelion. The point farthest from the Sun is called
the aphelion. The line joining perihelion and aphelion is called
the line of apsides.
In the orbit of the Moon, the point nearest the Earth is
called the perigee, and that point farthest from the Earth is
called the apogee. Next figure shows the orbit of the Earth (with
exaggerated eccentricity), and the orbit of the Moon around the
Earth.

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12
 THE Celestial Bodies used in Navigation
are divided into two (2) General classes.
1.Solar System – comprises the Sun and
it’s planetary system of eight planets, their
moons and other non stellar object. It is
estimated to be about 4.568 billion years.
2.Fixed Stars – are those celestial bodies
that are at such an immense distance from
the earth that they appear to remain in fixed
positions relative to each other and that
whatever movements which they have are
practically imperceptible to us.
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Their unit of distance is expressed
in light years or the distance that
their light at the rate of 186,000
mile per second travel in one year.
The nearest star was estimated to
have a distance of 26 million of
miles from the earth and most of
the stars are much further away.

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MAGNITUDES

Magnitude – is used to measure to apparent

brightness of a celestial body.
Astronomers divided the stars according to
brightness. The 20 brightness were classified as
the first magnitude and the dimmest were of the
sixth magnitude. The first magnitude star is
considered 100 times brighter than the sixth
magnitude star. The value chosen for this ratio is
2.512, because 2.512 multiplied by itself four times
is equals to 100.

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This means that a first magnitude star gives
2.51 times more light than a second
magnitude; a second magnitude star gives
2.51 times more light than third magnitude;
and so on. Stars are brighter than a first
magnitude star given a negative magnitude.

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DISTANCE OF STARS
The nearest known star to the earth is the
“Alpha Centauri” is 25 billion miles away.
Therefore the remote stars are imaginable. For this
reason, the ordinary “mile unit is not practicable for
stellar distance.

Units commonly used in Astronomy:

•The astronomical unit – is the mean distance of
the earth from the sun. in round numbers it is 93
million miles. This unit is mainly used for
expressing distance within the solar system.

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• The Light Year – is the distance light travel in one
year. The speed of light is 186,000 miles per
second; therefore one Light year is equal 5.88
billion miles. In terms of this unit the nearest star
“Alpha Centauri” 4.3 light years away. It is about
9.5 trillion kilometers.
• The Parsec – is coined from PARALlax ≠
SECond. It is the distance of a star that has a
parallax of one second of arc to an observer on
earth. It is 19 billion miles.
• There are no stars sufficiently near to the earth
to have a parallax of 1” of an arc.
• 1 Parsec = 3.26 Light year = 206.265 Astro Unit

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 PART 2
THE SOLAR SYSTEM
•The Solar System is composed of
celestial bodies that are held together by
the attraction of the sun and revolve
around it.

•The Solar System embraces the sun,

and those bodies called planets that
revolve around the sun and the lesser
bodies called satellites (moons) about the
planet.
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 These bodies are near enough to the earth so
that their real motions in space are evident to
us and they also appear to move due to the
earth’s motion about the sun and rotation upon
its axis.

Both the adjective “solar” and the noun

“system” are appropriate. “Solar” indicates the
sub governs. The sun contains 99.8% of the
mass of the solar system. The mass of all the
planets and their satellite, and the other minor
bodies comprises the other 0.2% of 1%. As a
result of this division of mass, the “massive”
sun is nearly stationary while all the “lighter”
bodies revolves around it. 21
 The word “system” implies that all the
bodies observe great regularity in their
motions. The laws governing these motions
are known for several centuries.

Distance between the planets are usually in

terms of astronomical unit (AU), the mean
distance between the earth and the sun. this
is approximately 92,960,000 miles. Thus, the
mean distance of the earth from the sun is 1
A.U.

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 Planetary Distance in the Solar System
Planet Eccentricity Max. Dist. Min. Dist. Mean Dist. Mean Dist.
of Orbit Fm the Sun Fm the Sun Fm the Sun Fm the Sun
in million in million in million in
km. km. km. Astronomic
al Unit
(A.U.)

Mercury 0.2056 69.7 45.9 57.9 0.387

Venus 0.0067 109 107.4 108.2 0.723
Earth 0.0167 152 147 149.6 1
Mars 0.0934 249 206 227.9 1.523
Jupiter 0.0484 815.7 740.9 778.3 5.202
Saturn 0.0556 1,507 1,347 1,427 9.538
Uranus 0.0472 3,004 2,735 2,896 19.181
Neptune 0.0086 4,537 4,456 4,496.7 30.058
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 THE SUN
The sun which is the center of the
solar system which is actually one of
the fixed stars and as far as it’s
position with reference to other stars
is concerned, it may be considered as
fixed in space and practically at an
infinite distance from them.

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 The situation is quiet different
with regards to the distances and
motions of the units of the solar
system are comparatively small
and their actual motion are quite
different.
The sun is the dominant member
of the solar system because its
mass is nearly a thousand times
that of all other bodies of the
solar system combined. It
supplies heat and light to the
entire system. 25
 The diameter of the sun is about
864,400 miles. At the distance of
the earth, varying between
91,300,000 at perihelion and
94,500,00 miles at aphelion. The
visible diameter is about 32 ft. At
the closest approach early in
January at perihelion the sun
appears largest, being 32.6 ft. in
diameter. Six months later at
aphelion the apparent diameter is
31.5 ft. minimum. 26
 The sun rotates on it’s axis, the period of
rotation varying from about 25 days at the
solar equator to 34 days at the poles, but
this fact has a little or no navigational
significance beyond its effect upon the
changing positions of sun spots relative to
the earth. The sun is moving approximately
toward the star Vega at about 12 miles per
second, or about 2/3 as fast as the earth
moves in it’s orbit around the sun. The path
of the sun toward Vega is called the “Sun’s
Way”. This is in addition to the motion of
the sun around the center of it’s galaxy.
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 PLANETS- the principal bodies having
nearly circular orbits around the sun.
From the Greek word meaning
“wandering”. They were so named
because they were observed to change
position or “wander” among the “fixed
stars” which remained in about the same
position relative to each other. Because
the sun and moon had a similar wandering
motion, the ancients considered them
planets also.
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 The two planets with orbits smaller than that of the Earth
are called inferior planets, and those with orbits larger than that
of the Earth are called superior planets.

The four planets nearest the Sun are sometimes called the
inner planets, and the others the outer planets. Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, and Neptune are so much larger than the others that
they are sometimes classed as major planets. Uranus is barely
visible to the unaided eye; Neptune and Pluto are not visible
without a telescope.

Planets can be identified in the sky because, unlike the

stars, they do not twinkle. The stars are so distant that they are
point sources of light.

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Therefore the stream of light from a star is easily scattered in the
atmosphere, causing the twinkling effect. The naked-eye planets,
however, are close enough to present perceptible disks. The
broader stream of light from a planet is not easily disrupted.
The orbits of many thousands of tiny minor planets or asteroids
lie chiefly between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. These are all
too faint to be seen with the naked eye.

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 THE Eight(9) Planets
MEMO WORD PLANETS
1.My Mercury
2.Very Venus
3.Eager Earth
4.Maid Mars
5.Just Jupiter
6.Slept Saturn
7.Under Uranus
8.Nine Neptune

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32
 PLANETS USED FOR CELESTIAL
OBSERVATION IN NAVIGATION
1. Venus 3. Jupiter
2. Mars 4. Saturn

MAJOR PLANETS (Bigger Bodies)

1. Jupiter 3. Uranus
2. Saturn 4. Neptune

PLANETS NOT SEEN BY UNAIDED EYE

1. Neptune
2. Uranus
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 INNER PLANETS- those planets that
revolves revolve inside the main zone of
the asteroids.
1. Mercury 3. Earth
2. Venus 4. Mars

OUTER PLANETS- those planets that

revolves revolve outside the main zone of
the asteroids.
1. Jupiter 3. Uranus
2. Saturn 4. Neptune

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 INFERIOR PLANETS- planets in which
their orbits are smaller compared to the
orbit of the earth.
1. Mercury
2. Venus

SUPERIOR PLANETS- planets in which

their orbits are larger compared to the orbit
of the earth.
1. Mars 4. Uranus
2. Jupiter 5. Neptune
3. Saturn
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PRINCIPAL FACTS ABOUT THE NINE
PLANETS IN THE ORDER OF THEIR
DISTANCE FROM THE SUN

MERCURY the smallest planet and

1.MERCURY-
the nearest to the sun.36 million miles;
diameter= 3,100 miles; rotates on it’s
axis in 24h 05m, revolves around the sun
in 88 days, orbital velocity= 30 miles per
second, eccentricity of orbit = 0.206.
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 Eccentricity of an Orbit
An ellipse can be very long and thin, or it can
be quite round - almost like a circle.
Scientists use a special term,
"eccentricity", to describe how round or
how "stretched out" an ellipse is. If the
eccentricity of an ellipse is close to one (like
0.8 or 0.9), the ellipse is long and skinny. If
the eccentricity is close to zero, the ellipse is
more like a circle.
(Eccentricity – is a measure of how much the shape deviates
from a circle.)
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38
 2.VENUS - the second in distance
from the sun,67 million miles;
diameter= 7,700 miles; rotates on it’s
axis in 23h 21m, revolves around the
sun in 225 days, orbital velocity= 22
miles per second, eccentricity of
orbit = 0.007,the most nearly circular
orbit of all planets. Except the sun
and the moon, Venus is due to the
high reflecting power of the thick
clouds covering it’s atmosphere.
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Special Mention: The Planet Venus
Venus is a planet and, like the earth, it revolves
eastward around the sun. bur being an inferior planet, it
is nearer to the sun and according to Kepler’s Third
Law, moves at a greater angular velocity than the earth.

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RELATIVE POSITON OF SUN,

VENUS AND EARTH

 V2

ys

V3
da

-
V2
0
22

=
22
=

0
V4

da
-

ys
V2
Greatest V4 V3 Greatest
Elongation East Brightness Brightness Elongation West
36 days 36 days

B A

V1
Ve rning

g S as
Mo
nus

tar
rnin en
Inferior Conjunction

Mo s se
see tar

26 M miles from Earth

nu
na
S

Ve
s

Setting point (Sunset) Noon

Rising point (Sunrise)
Point of
After Sunset 3h 04m = 46° Midnight Before Sunrise 3h 04m = 46°
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 Venus as Morning and Evening Star
Venus being an inferior planet is never visible from the
earth at midnight, for then the observer is on that side of the
Earth which is turned away from the planet.
At midnight Venus cannot be seen from Z1 as the bulge
of the earth is in the way. When the earth has rotated the
observer from Z1 to Z2 Venus will come into view before
sunrise and will remain visible until the observer reaches
position “A1” when the light of the Venus is lost in the more
brilliant light of the sun during the day. From the time Venus
come into view before sunrise until disappears from view at
sunrise, Venus is said to be a “morning star”.

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 When Venus is at position V2, she would be seen
before sunset, that is before the observer reached
position B, and she would remain visible until the
observer is carried round from B to Z3. she would,
therefore, set after sunset and would be called an
“evening star”.

The interval of time during which Venus is visible is

limited by the time required for the Earth to rotate
through arc AZ2 or arc BZ3. Since these arcs are never
greater than 46° (3 hours) Venus is never above the
horizon for more than hours after sunset or 3 hours after
sunrise.
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 3.EARTH - the third in distance from
the sun,92.9 million miles; diameter=
7,918 miles; rotates on it’s axis in 23h
56m 04s, revolves around the sun in
365 ¼ days, orbital velocity= 18.5
miles per second, eccentricity of orbit
= 0.017,it has one satellite called
moon. The moon is 239,000 miles
from the earth or about 60 times the
earth’s radius.
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In common with other
planets, the Earth rotates on
its axis and revolves in its
orbit around the Sun. These
motions are the principal
source of the daily apparent
motions of other celestial
bodies. The Earth’s rotation
also causes a deflection of
water and air currents to
the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the
Southern Hemisphere. Because of the Earth’s rotation, high
tides on the open sea lag behind the meridian transit of the
Moon.

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 For most navigational purposes, the Earth can
be considered a sphere. However, like the other
planets, the Earth is approximately an oblate
spheroid, or ellipsoid of revolution, flattened at
the poles and bulged at the equator. Therefore,
the polar diameter is less than the equatorial
diameter, and the meridians are slightly
elliptical, rather than circular. The dimensions of
the Earth are recomputed from time to time, as
additional and more precise measurements
become available. Since the Earth is not exactly
an ellipsoid, results differ slightly when equally
precise and extensive measurements are made
on different parts of the surface.
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MOON - distance from the
earth, 239,000 miles or
about 60 times the earth’s
radius. Diameter= 2,160
miles; rotates on it’s axis
in 27d 07h 43m, revolves
around the earth, in
exactly the same length of
time; eccentricity of
orbit = 0.05.
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 4.MARS – the fourth in distance
from the sun. 141.5 million miles. It
has a diameter of 4,200 miles; it
rotates on it’s axis in 24h 37m and
revolves around the sun in 687 days
(1.88 yrs.). Orbital velocity 15 miles
per second; eccentricity of orbit =
0.093. mars is noted for its red color
and it’s variable brilliance. It has two
satellites known as Phobos and
Deimos.
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 PHOBOS- is the inner and
large satellite; it revolves
around Mars in about 8 hrs. it
is the only known satellite,
whose period of revolution is
less than the period of rotation
of it’s primary. Hence, to an
observer in Mars, Phobos will
appear to appear in the west
and set in the east.
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 DEIMOS-it revolves around Mars
in about 30 hrs 18m or very nearly
6h longer than the period of
rotation to it’s primary. To an
observer in Mars, Deimos would
rise every 132 hrs and remain
above the horizon for nearly half
that time.

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 5.JUPITER – the largest planet
and fifth in distance from the sun.
484 million miles. It has a
diameter of 86,740 miles; it
rotates on it’s axis in 9h 50m and
revolves around the sun in 12 yrs.
Orbital velocity 8 miles per
second; eccentricity of orbit =
0.048. It has 16 satellites
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NAMES OF 16 MOONS (SATELLITES)
1.Androstea 9. Leda
2.Metis 10. Himalia
3.Amalthea 11. Lysithia
4.Thebe 12. Elara
5. IO 13. Ananke
6. Europa 14. Carme
7. Ganymede 15. Pasiphae
8. Calisto 16. Sinope

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6. SATURN – is the sixth in distance
from the sun. 886 million miles. It
has a diameter of 71,500 miles; it
rotates on it’s axis in 10h 14m and
revolves around the sun in 29 ½
yrs. Orbital velocity 6 miles per
second; eccentricity of orbit =
0.056. It is the only planets with a
system of three concentric broad
flat rings which are supposed to be
disinteggrated satellites. It has 10
satellites.
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 NAMES OF SATURN 10 MOONS
1.Janus 6. Rhea
2.Mimas 7. Titan
3.Enceladus 8. Hyperion
4.Tethys 9. Lapetus
5.Dione 10. Phoebe

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 7. URANUS- is the 7th in
distance from the sun.1,782
million miles. It rotates on it’s
axis 10h 45m and revolves
around the sun in 84 years.
Orbital velocity 4.2 miles per
second; eccentricity of orbit
0.047 and has 5 satellites.

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 In contrast to the other planets which
rotate in their own axis counterclockwise
and revolve around the sun in the same
direction. Uranus is unique and that (a) it
rotates on its axis “clockwise” or
“backwards”, but revolves around the sun
in the normal counterclockwise direction,
its equatorial plane is almost at right
angles to the plane of it’s orbit- the exact
value of the angle being 82º.

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 5 MOONS OF URANUS

1.Miranda 4. Titania
2.Ariel 5. Oberon
3.Umbriel

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 8. NEPTUNE- is the eight in
distance from the sun 2,792 million
miles. It has a diameter of 31,700
miles. It rotates on it’s axis 15h 48m
and revolves around the sun in 165
years. Orbital velocity 3.4 miles per
second; eccentricity of orbit 0.009
and has 2 satellites. (Triton and
Nereid)

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63
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STARS &PLANETS
• STARS • PLANETS
• Stars shine by • Planets shine by
their own the reflected
inherent light. light of the sun.
• Stars from the • The planets from
part of the part of the
universe. universe, but at
the same time a
member of solar
system.
• Stars have a • The planets have
practically variable GHA and
constant Declination.
declination and
SHA. 64
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STARS &PLANETS
• STARS • PLANETS
• Stars are seen • Planets are
anywhere in all confined to the
heavens. Zodiac belt.
• Stars does not
appear • Planets appear
magnified by
magnified by telescope view .
telescope view.
• Stars appear to •
Planets shine
twinkle with a steady
especially when light especially
the sky is not in good weather
clear. condition 65
 Incredible Facts
Do Stars Really Twinkle?

Stars do not really twinkle; they just appear to twinkle

when seen from Earth. Stars “twinkle” in the night
sky because of the effect of the atmosphere and by
areas with different temperature and densities. These
cause the light from the stars to “twinkle”.

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 • KEPPLER’S LAW OF
PLANETARY MOTION
It was Johannes Kepler in 1609 who discovered that
the planets travelled around the sun in ellipses with
the sun located at one fucos of the ellipse. This
principle is the first of three “Laws” governing
planetary motions that bear Kepler’s name.

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68
 • KEPPLER’S LAW OF PLANETARY MOTION
• First Law (Law of Orbit) – the orbit of the earth is
an ellipse, having the sun at one of it’s foci.
• The Ellipse – is a figure like an elongated circle. It
has two points known as “Foci” (plural of Fucos)
and two diameter known as major and minor axis. It
is important to the nautical student because the
meridian and the orbit of the earth are ellipses.

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How to draw an ellipse

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71
 Eccentricity of an ellipse
Is defined as the ratio of distance between foci to
length of major axis.
Formula:
e=c/a
Where:
C = distance from center to the fucos of an
ellipse.
a = distance from center to the vertex.

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This ratio, in the case of an ellipse is
always larger than 0 and less than 1.
It indicates how “eccentric” compared
with a circle, the ellipse. When the
ratio is small, say 0.1, the ellipse is
almost circular. When the eccentricity
is large let’s say 0.8, the ellipse is
highly elongated.

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• Second Law (Law of Periods)= the Radius
Vector of a planet sweeps over equal areas in
equal intervals of time.
• The Radius Vector is an imaginary line that
connects the sun with the planets.
• The 2nd law deals with the speed of the planets
in their respective orbits. The speed is not
constant, the planets moving faster the closer
they are to the sun. The maximum speed of
any planet is attained when it is closest to the
sun, the minimum when it is farthest.

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Third Law (Law of Areas)- the squares of the times of
revolution about the sun of any two planets are
proportional to the cubes of their mean distance
from the sun.
This can be stated as an algebraic equation:
Let the two planets be designated as A and B.
(Period of A)²͇(Mean dist.of Sun fm A)³
(Period of B)² (Mean dist.of Sun fm B)³

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 The Earth’s Orbit
• On average, 93 million statute miles from the Sun.
This distance is defined as one Astronomical Unit
(AU).
• The earth is closest to the sun at early January and is
called perihelion at 91.3 million statute miles.
• The earth is farthest from the sun early July and is
called aphelion at 94.5 million statute miles.
• The earth’s orbital eccentricity is 0.017; close to
being circular.

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 The Moon’s Orbit
• On average, the moon is 239,000 statute miles from
the earth.
• The moon is closest to the earth and is called perigee
at 221,000 statute miles.
• The moon is farthest from the earth and is called
apogee at 253,000 statute miles.

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83
Anomalistic Year – the period of one revolution
of the earth around the sun, from perihelion to
perihelion, averaging 365 days 6 hrs, 13
minutes, 53 seconds in 1900 and increasing at
the rate of o.26 second per century.
Anomalistic month – the average period of
revolution of the moon from perigee to
perigee, a period of 27 days, 13 hours, 18
minutes, 33.2 seconds in 1900.

84
Line of Apsides – the line connecting the two
points of an orbit that are nearest and farthest
from the center of attraction, such as perigee
and apogee of the moon and perihelion and
aphelion of the earth.

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 • THE EARTH AS A PLANET
• 5 Different Motions of the Earth
1.Daily Rotation of the Earth
- The earth rotates around its axis in an easterly
direction at a uniform rate at one revolution per day.
This phenomena of day and night forms the basis on
which our measure of time is founded. The daily
rotation of the earth causes the heavenly bodies to
appear to revolve around the earth in the opposite
direction which is westerly..

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 2.Annual Rotation Around the Sun
-in addition to its daily rotation on it’s axis, the earth
revolves around the sun eastward in elliptical orbit.
A complete revolution requires approximately 365
¼ calendar days. It’s motion in its orbit is not
uniform because the orbit is an ellipse and not a
circle. This motion takes place on the place of the
ecliptic which is inclined to the plane of the
equinoctial at an angle of about 23°27’.

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 3. PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES
- The shape of the earth is that of the spheroid,
flattened at the poles. Owing to this shape, the
gravitational pull of the sun and the sun are also
slightly irregular. The sun’s attraction therefore
cause it to process: “that is the plane of
equinoctial is caused to rotate slowly and the
celestial poles described a small circle on the
surface of the celestial sphere”.

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 • 4. NUTATION (Nodding)– the unequal
gravitational attraction of the moon on the earth also
has an effect on the movement of the earth’s axis.
The sun’s attraction causes the earth’s axis to
wobble so that each celestial pole describe a small
circle around the corresponding pole of the ecliptic.
The additional influence of the moon modifies the
movement of the earth’s axis, causing the circle it
describes to become “wavy”. The combined effect
of precession and nutation requires 26,000 years to
complete a cycle.

89
90
• 5. SPACE MOTION – in addition to it’s rotation,
the sun is moving in space relative to the stars
around it as other stars. This space motion has a
special name the “Sun’s Way” when applied to the
sun. Our entire solar system is moving with the sun
approximately in the direction of the star vega. At a
rate computed to be more than 12 miles per second.

91
 PLANETARY CONFIGURATION
The apparent position of the planets in relation to
other members of the Solar System are called
“Planetary Configuration”.
Since the orbit of an inferior planet lies within that of
the earth, the planet and the sun are nearly in line
each synodic period of revolution of the inferior
planet.

92
• A Planetary Configuration describe the location of the
planet in the celestial sphere with respect to the sun at
any particular time. The astronomers of the ancient times
recognized two types of planet: the Inferior Planets
whose orbit lies inside the earth’s orbit (Mercury and
Venus) and the Superior Planets whose orbit lies outside
the earth’s orbit (Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and
Neptune)
• Note: Pluto is no longer considered as a planet.It was
downgraded and reclassified as dwarf planet by
International Astronomical Union (IAU) on
• August 24, 2006
94
 • The following conditions are worthy of note:
1.When the sun is between the earth and the other
planet, that planet is at superior conjunction.
2.When the planet is between the earth and the sun,
it is at inferior conjunction.
3.The angle between lines to the sun and a planet,
particularly an inferior planet, is called the planet’s
elongation, which may be designated east or west
to indicate the apparent position of the planet
relative to the sun.

95
4. As an inferior planets
continues along it’s orbit,
it’s elongation increases
slowly until the planet
arrives at the point where a
straight line from the earth
is tangent to it’s orbit,
when the elongation becomes
maximum. Here it is called
greatest elongation east.

96
 5. As an inferior planets
continues along it’s orbit,
it’s elongation decreases
rapidly, becoming zero at
inferior conjunction. Through
the second half of it’s
synodic period it’s
elongation increases rapidly
to greatest elongation west,
and then decreases slowly to
zero at the next superior
conjunction.
97
6. When the sun is between the
earth and the superior
planet, that planet is at
conjunction. The adjective
“superior” is not needed
because a superior planet,
when on the opposite side is
away from the sun or at
opposition and can never be
at inferior conjunction.

98
7. When it’s elongation is 90°,
a superior planet is at east
or west quadrature, depending
upon it’s apparent position
relative to the sun.

99
Inferior Planets (Mercury and Venus) these are the
planets between the Sun and the Earth. They are seen
either in the eastern sky before sunrise or in the western
sky after sunset.
For brief periods they disappear into the Sun’s glare. At
this time they are between the Earth and Sun (known as
inferior conjunction) or on the opposite side of the
Sun from the Earth (superior conjunction). On rare
occasions at inferior conjunction, the planet will cross
the face of the Sun as seen from the Earth. This is
known as a transit of the Sun.
Inferior planets can either be at inferior conjunction or at superior
conjunction.
Inferior planets cannot be seen at opposition.
100
 Aspects and Phases of the Inferior Planets
Because the inferior planets Mercury and Venus revolve faster
than the Earth does, they appear to us oscillate to the east
and west with respect to the sun’s place in the sky.

Greatest Elongation
Greatest Elongation West
East Venus

Earth’s Orbit

101
Earth
Inferior Conjunction – when an inferior planet has the
same celestial longitude as the Sun, and the Planet is
between the Sun and the Earth.

Venus

Earth
102
Superior Conjunction – when the Sun, and the Planet has
the same celestial longitude, but the planet is on the
opposite side of the sun from the Earth.

Venus

Earth
103
Elongation – the angle at the earth between lines to the sun
and another celestial body of the solar system. Greatest
elongation for Venus can reach up to 47° and
Mars 28°.

Venus at
Venus Venus Venus at
maximum
maximum
elongation
elongation
East .
West .

Earth
104
Superior Planets (Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, Neptune)
All other planets whose orbit are outside that of
the earth’s orbit around the sun.

Superior planets can either be at conjunction or at

opposition.
Superior planets can never be at inferior conjunction or
superior conjunction.

105
Aspects and Phases of the Superior Planets
Because the superior planets revolve more slowly
than the Earth does, they move eastward in the
sky more slowly than the sun appears to do, so
that they are overtaken and passed by at
intervals. With respect to the sun’s position, they
seem to move westward and to attain all values
of elongation from 0° to 180°

106
Conjunction – when a superior planet has the same
celestial longitude as the Sun, and the Sun is between the
Planet and the Earth.

Mars

Earth

107
Opposition – when a superior planet and the Sun has
celestial longitudes differing 180°. The Earth is between
the Sun and the Planet. Superior planet are brightest and
closest to the earth at Opposition.

Earth

Mars
108
Quadrature – an elongation of 90° specified east or west
from the sun. Mars at East quadrature

Mars at West
Mars at East
Earth quadrature
quadrature

109
PLANETARY CONFIGURATION

110
 APPARENT MOTION OF PLANETS AS SEEN
FROM THE EARTH
The motion of planets with respect to the sun would
be true, generally, with respect to the stars, also, if
the earth were stationary in orbit. However, because
of the earth’s motion around the sun, the sun
appears to move eastward among the stars. This is
usually the direction of apparent motion of the
planets, too is called direct motion.

111
 • When a planet is near opposition or inferior
conjunction, it’s apparently westerly motion relative
the sun is greater than the apparent easterly motion
of the sun relative to the stars, and the Planet
appears to move in a westerly direction relative to
the stars. This is called “retrograde motion”.

112
113
Let the inner circle in the figure hat represent the orbit of
the earth around the sun. let the large circle represent the
orbit of the Mars. The earth, being closer to the sun,
moves faster than Mars. Let the top of the figure
represent part of the celestial sphere. The sphere serves
as a background upon which the movements of Mars are
observed. When the earth is in position 1, Mars will also
be seen at place 1 on the celestial sphere. Several weeks
later, both the Earth and Mars will have move in their
orbits. Mars is now at point 2. as the Earth moves
through position 3,4,5,6,7, and 8 the trace described by
Mars on the celestial sphere will be of a body in
retograde motion.

114
ACTUAL AND RELATIVE MOTION
OF THE EARTH AND SUN
AND THE ZODIAC BELT
 The Signs of Zodiac
The zodiac is a circular band of the sky
extending 8° on each side of the
ecliptic. The navigational planet and the
moon are within these limits. The
Zodiac is divided into 12 sections of 30°
each, each section being given the
name and symbol of the constellation
within it.

116
• The sun remains in each part for approximately one
month. When the names were assigned, more than
2,000 years ago, the sun entered Aries at the vernal
equinox, Cancer at the summer solstice, Libra at
the autumnal equinox and Capricornus at the
winter solstice. Even through this is no longer true
because of precession of the equinoxes, the Nautical
Almanac still list the sun as entering these
constellations at the times of the equinoxes and
solstices, for this has come to be their principal
astronomical significance.

117
118
119
 SEPTEMBER 22

93
d
N 14
h

h
20
SU
d R M
89

M
S M

U
E

N T
AU
DECEMBER 22

JUNE 21
N
N

S
S

W
IN N
TE
R I NG
R
98 SP
d S
00

h
h

20
d
MARCH 21 92
121
 4 Zodiac signs referred to
Navigation
1.Cancer
2.Libra
3.Capricorn
4.Aries

122
 SEASONS
The seasons on the earth is due to
the earth’s travel in it’s elliptical
orbits and also with the result of it’s
inclination as determined by the
sun’s declination being felt on
earth. It is also determined by the
observation of the background of
the Zodiac belt.
123
124
 N CANCER
Pn (June 21)

SUMMER
AUTUMN

LIBRA
(September 22)
Angle of Declination
23.5° N

E = 23.5

E1 = 23.5
on
S nati
.5° cli

SPRING
23 f De
o
gle
An

ARIES
WINTER (March 21)

CAPRICORN
(December 22)

Ps
S
SPRING = when the sun is at th
“Vernal equinox” or “First point
Aries” on March 21 when it’s
declination is 0° changing from
South to North declination. It las
for 92 days and 20 hours
according to the known “Kepler
Law” of the ecliptic. It takes 93
days.
126
 SUN’S DIURNAL RELATIVE
TO THE EARTH CAUSED
BY THE SUN’S DECLINATION
 N

W
E

E
S

When the sun has no declination.

That occurs on March 21
 SUMMER – when the sun
is at the “Summer Solstice”
on June 22 when it reaches
it’s maximum declination
of 23°27’N. (23.5°N). It last
for 93 days and 14 hours. It
takes 94 days.

129
When the sun’s maximum declination
of 23.5° N on June 21

N
N N

W EE
W
W

SS
S
AUTUMN – when the sun is
at the “Autumn Equinox” or
“First Point of Libra” on
September 22 when it’s
declination is 0° changing
from North to South
declination. It last for 89
days and 20 hours. It takes
90 days.
131
When the sun has no declination.
That occurs on September 22

N
E

W
E

S
WINTER – when the sun is
at “Winter Solstice” on
December 22 when it
reaches it’s maximum
declination of 23°27’S
(23.5°S) and back to pass
again the Vernal Equinox or
First Point of Aries after
exactly 89 days.
133
 N When the sun has a maximum South
E
declination of 23.5° S
N on December 22

W E

S
W
S
 NORTHERN SOUTHERN
HEMISPERE HEMISPHERE
1ST POINT OF CANCER SUMMER WINTER
SUMMER SOLSTICE
JUNE 21 LONGER DAY SHORTER DAY
DECL. = 23°27’ N
1ST POINT OF LIBRA AUTUMN SPRING
AUTUMNAL EQUINOX
SEPTEMBER 21 DAY = NIGHT DAY = NIGHT
DECL.= 0° N to S
1ST POINT OF CAPRICORN WINTER SUMMER
WINTER SOLSTICE
DECEMBER 21 SHORTER DAY LONGER DAY
DECL.=23°27’ S
1ST POINT OF ARIES SPRING AUTUMN
VERNAL EQUINOX
MARCH 21 DAY=NIGHT DAY = NIGHT
135
DECL.= 0° S to N
 EQUINOX – means equal nights. (Vernal and
Autumnal Equinox). The time when the sun crosses
the celestial equator. Occuring about March 21
(Vernal Equinox) and September 22 (Autumnal
Equinox)
SOLSTICE – means sun stand still. (Summer and
Winter). It is when the sun reaches it’s maximum
declination 23°27’ North or South. Occurs every
June 21 (Summer solstice) and December 22
(Winter Solstice)

136
137
 MAJOR CIRCLES OF THE EARTH MARKED BY THE PATH OF THE SUN
N

ARCTIC CIRCLE 66°33’N

Sun’s path
angle= 23.5°N
TROPIC OF CANCER
23°27’N

EQ EQ
TROPIC OF
CAPRICORN
23°27’S

ANTARCTIC CIRCLE 66°33’S

S 138
Tropic of Cancer – the parallel of declination approx.
23°27’N of the celestial equator, reached by the sun at
it’s maximum N’ly declination, the sun being vertically
over places on the parallel of Cancer on 21st June.
Tropic of Capricorn - the parallel of declination approx.
23°27’S of the celestial equator, reached by the sun at
it’s maximum S’ly declination, the sun being vertically
over places on the parallel of Capricorn on 22nd
December.

139
Arctic Circle (North Polar Circle) – the parallel of
latitude approx. 66°33’N marking the Southern limit of
the North Frigid Zone. This latitude is the complement
of the sun’s greatest N’ly declination, and for a period of
time during the year, the sun never rises or never set
(circumpolar) at places within this zone.
Antarctic Circle (South Polar Circle) - the parallel of
latitude approx. 66°33’S marking the Northern limit of
the South Frigid Zone. This latitude is the complement
of the sun’s greatest S’ly declination, and for a period of
time during the year, the sun never rises or never set
(circumpolar) at places within this zone.

140
Torrid Zone – the region of the earth between the Tropic
of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. Also called the
Tropics.

Temperate Zone – either of the two zones between the

frigid and the torrid zones called the North Temperate
Zone and South Temperate Zone.

Frigid Zone – either of the two zones between the polar

circles and the poles, called the North Frigid Zone and
the South Frigid Zone.

141
 THE MOON
The moon is the only
satellite of direct navigation
interest to navigators.
At perigee the moon is
about 226, 970.9 miles from
the Earth’s center and at
apogee it is about 253,000
miles distance. The average
distance is about 238,862
miles.
142
 THE MOVEMENT
OF THE MOON
The rotation and revolution of the
moon are both west to east, and both
are of the same duration, 27d 07h 43m
11.5s with respect to the stars (sidereal
month) and 29d 12h 44m 02.8s with
respect to the sun (synodical month).
Because there is no difference in the
periods of rotation and revolution, the
same side of the moon is
always turned towards the earth.

143
 As with the planets and sun,
the moon and earth both revolve
around their common center of mass ,
which is about 2,900 miles from the center
of mass that describes the orbit of the
earth (and moon) around the sun.
Because of their relative nearness
and size, the moon is the principal source

of the gravitational attraction that causes

tides, although sun has an appre-
ciable effects also.
144
 Facts about the moon.
4,700km.- distance of moon orbit from the
earth’s center.
1,023 km/hr –moon’s mean orbital speed.
5.1°- inclination of moon’s orbit to the
ecliptic.
Synodical Month (29 ½ days) – moon makes
one complete trip relative to the sun
in the celestial sphere.
Sidereal Month (27.3 days) – the moon
revolves around earth relative to the
stars.
Tropical Month (27.321 days)- with
respect to vernal equinox. 145
Anomalistic Month (27.55 days)- with
respect to perigee.
Nodical Month (27.21 days) – with respect
to ascending node.
Libration – from Latin word “Libro” which
means are to balance. It is the various
orbital conditions which make it
possible.
Various Libration which affects the Moon.
1.Libration in Latitude – axis of rotation
tilted about 7°with respect to axis of
the revolution.
2.Libration in Longitude -axis of rotation
tilted about 8° of longitude. 146
3. Diurnal Libration – changing position
of the observer relative to the moon
due to rotation of the earth.
4. Physical Libration – oscillation of the
moon with respect to it’s radius
vector.

147
Terms in observing the Moon

ALBEDO – a term given to the

proportionate light reflected by
the sun to the moon of about 0.07
magnitudes.

148
TERMINATOR – a line or sector separating the
illuminated and the dark portion of the moon.
149
150
WAXING- the first half cycle of the moon. The
moon is between new and full when the visible
part is increasing.
WANING- the second half cycle of the moon. The
moon is between full and new when the visible
part is decreasing.

151
WAXING- the first half cycle of the moon. The moon
is between new and full when the visible part is
increasing.
WANING- the second half cycle of the moon. The
moon is between full and new when the visible part is
decreasing.

152
HARVEST MOON- occurs when the
full moon is nearest the autumnal
equinox approximately on September
21-22.

HUNTERS MOON – occurs when the

full moon is about a month or more
lately than the harvest moon
approximately on October or
November.

153
SYNODIC PERIOD OR LUNATION – the cycle from New
moon back to same stage or Full moon to the same stage.
The complete cycle takes place about 29 ½ days which is
also termed as the “Age of the Moon”, the actual Sidereal
month is 27.3 days.

154
 PHASES OF THE MOON
The moon is not a self luminous body; the light
coming from it – moonlight – is simply a reflected
sunlight. As a result only that hemisphere
towards the sun is illuminated. Were it possible to
look at the moon from the sun, the observer
would always sea a full moon. But the observer
on the earth looks at the moon from different
angles because the positions of the moon, the
earth and the sun, in relation to each other , are
constantly changing. Hence, the illuminated
portion of the moon as seen from the earth
gradually changes in shape during each lunar
month. The various forms of visible portion of the
moon is called phases. 155
156
In the figure, the circle along the orbit indicates the
illuminated hemisphere of the moon as it moves eastward
counterclockwise. The circles inside indicate the
corresponding “phases of the moon” the boundary
between the illuminated dark portion of the moon called
“Terminator”.

157
 1

1. When the moon and the sun are on the same side of the earth, in
conjunction, the dark hemisphere of the moon is toward the
earth and the moon cannot be seen. This is called NEW MOON.
Spring Tide occurs.
(Spring Tide – tides with the high tides are very high and the low
tides are very low. )
158
 2

2. As the moon moves eastward away from the sun, more and more
of illuminated hemisphere can be seen, and as seen from the
earth appears as a crescent with the “horns or cusps” pointing
westward. This is called new crescent. The moon can be seen
low in western sky just after sunset. Priming of tide occurs.
(Priming of Tide - The acceleration in the times of occurrence of high and
low tides when the sun's tidal effect comes before that of the moon) 159
 3

3. About 1 week after New Moon, the moon is 90° from the sun
in quadrature, and the illuminated hemisphere appear as a semi circular disk of
light. This is called First Quarter because the moon has completed a quarter
of its revolution around the earth. At sunset the moon can be seen near the
meridian because it is nearly 6 hours east or behind the sun. Neap tide
Occurs
160
(Neap Tide – tide with lower high tide and higher low tide. The result is a smaller
 4

4. As the moon approaches the opposite side of the earth from the
sun, the phase grows bigger, and the illuminated hemisphere appears
rounded and bulging. This is known as “Gibbous”. Lagging of tide
occurs.
(Lagging of tide - The periodic retardation in the time of occurrence of high
and low water due to changes in the relative positions of the Moon and Sun.)
161
 5

5. About two weeks after New Moon, the moon and the
sun are on opposite sides of the earth, in opposition
the moon appears as a circular disk of light. This is
Full Moon. Since the moon is 180° or 12hrs from the
162
sun, it rises just after sunset. Spring Tide Occurs
 6

During the next two weeks the moon reveals the same
phases in reverse order.
6. The moon is Gibbous – similar to position 4, Priming of tide
occurs. 163
 7

7. This is called third or last quarter. The moon is

now 6hrs west or “ahead” of the sun, hence
rises about midnight. Neap tide Occurs. 164
 8

8.This is called old crescent with the “horns or cusps”

pointing eastward. Lagging of tide Occurs 165
166
 As the moon moves closer to the sun, less and
less of the illuminated hemisphere can be seen
until it disappears from view- another new moon
takes place, and a lunar month or synodic month
of 29 ½ days is completed.
During the first half of the cycle, the moon is
waxing, and during the second half the moon is
waning.
Note: there is one day every synodic month that
there is No moonrise and another with No
moonset.

1 SOLAR DAY = 24H 00M 00S

1 LUNAR DAY = 24H 50M 00S
1 SIDEREAL DAY = 23H 56M 04S 167
ECLIPSES
 ECLIPSES
Because of the inclination of
the moon’s orbit with respect to
the ecliptic, the sun, earth and
moon are usually not so nearly in
line at conjunction and opposition
of the moon that either the earth or
moon passes through the shadow
of the other. However, when this
does occur, an Eclipse takes
place.
169
 The earth, as it moves around
the sun, cast a shadow in the
form of a cone extending into
space in the direction away from
the sun. The average length of
this shadow is 858,000 miles. The
dark shadow-cone of the earth is
called Umbra (Latin for shadow)
and the partly lighted space
surrounding the Umbra is called
Penumbra.
170
171
 LUNAR ECLIPSE
When the moon is in opposition or Full Moon
that is the Earth is between the Moon and the
Sun causing an obscuration of light
producing a shadow on the Moon.
During a lunar eclipse some light does
reach the moon because of diffraction by the
atmosphere of the earth, and hence the lunar
eclipsed full moon is visible as faint reddish
disk. A lunar eclipse is visible over the entire
hemisphere of the earth facing the moon.
Anyone who can see the moon can see the
eclipse. 172
 THE LUNAR ECLIPSE
PENUMBRA

Umbra
ANATOMY OF LUNAR ECLIPSE

174
CONDITIONS FOR A LUNAR ECLIPSE:
For a lunar eclipse to occur, two important
conditions must be fulfilled at the same time.

1. The moon must be in Opposition, that the

Moon and the Sun must be opposite sides
of the earth, and the three bodies must lie in
a straight line. Hence it must be Full Moon.
175
2. The moon should be at one of the Nodes- the
two points at which the orbit of the moon
intersects the ecliptic.

176
Note: In a lunar eclipse, the Right Ascension of
the moon and the sun differ by 12 hrs. and their
declinations are equal but of contrary name.

In a solar eclipse, their Right Ascension are the

same and their declinations are equal and of the
same name.

Right Ascension - The angular distance of a celestial

body or point on the celestial sphere, measured
eastward from the vernal equinox along the celestial
equator to the hour circle of the body or point and
expressed in degrees or hours.
177
178
 The two points of the moons orbit and the
ecliptic are called nodes. And the line
connecting them the Line of Nodes. Eclipse
occur when the sun, earth and moon are nearly
on this line, twice each eclipse year of 346.6
days . This is less than a calendar year
because of the regression of the nodes. In 19
years the line of nodes returns to approximately
the same position with respect to the sun, earth
and moon. During an almost equal period,
called the saros, a cycle of eclipse occurs.
During the following saros, the cycle is repeated
with only minor differences.
179
 Eclipse have considerable
value in establishing
additional facts about the
sun and the moon, and in
determining distances
between two widely
separated points on the
earth, at which accurate
timing of eclipse is made.
180
THE SOLAR ECLIPSE
 SOLAR ECLIPSE
When the moon is in
conjunction (New Moon), it
may pass directly between
the sun and the earth, and
the shadow cone of the
moon is cast upon the
earth.
182
CONDITIONS OF THE SOLAR ECLIPSE:
For a solar eclipse to occur, two important
conditions must be fulfilled at the same time:
1.The moon must be at the inferior conjunction is a
straight line with the sun and earth. It must occur
during new moon.
2.Right ascension of the moon and sun are the
same and with equal declination of the same
names. It last not more than 7 minutes. 183
 ANNULAR
(SOLAR) ECLIPSE

184
ANNULAR SOLAR ECLIPSE – when
the shadow-cone of the moon is too
short to reach the earth, an Annular
eclipse or Ring eclipse of the sun
occurs. In this case the apparent
diameter of the moon is less than the
apparent diameter of the sun, so that
when the moon passes across the
face of the sun, the observer will see
a ring of sunlight around the edge of
the moon. 185
186
THE ANULAR ECLIPSE
PARTIAL (SOLAR) ECLIPSE

Occurs when the sun is

partially obscured by the
Moon causing the shadow
not to pass the earth. It is
sometimes due to the
defraction in the
atmosphere of the earth.
188
189
THE PARTIAL ECLIPSE
TOTAL (Solar) ECLIPSE

Occurs when the Sun

is totally obscured by
the Moon is at umbra
or within it during an
eclipse.
191
192
THE TOTAL ECLIPSE
194
195
If the orbit of the moon and the
ecliptic where on the same
planet, there would be two
eclipse every month: (1) A lunar
eclipse every full moon and (2)
a solar eclipse every new
moon.
196
 During any one year there maybe
as many as five eclipses of the sun,
and always there at least two.
There maybe as many as three
eclipses of the moon or none. The
total number of eclipses during a
single year does not exceed seven,
and can be as few as two. There
are more solar than the lunar
eclipses, but the latter are more
numerous at any one place because
of the restricted areas over which
the solar eclipses are visible.197
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LUNAR AND SOLAR
ECLIPSE.
1.Lunar eclipse can occur only at Full moon,
while Solar eclipse only at New Moon.
2.Lunar eclipse, both total and or partial, can be
observed simultaneously from every place on
the earth’s hemisphere facing the moon; Solar
eclipse are visible only from places touched by
the umbra and penumbra.
3.Lunar eclipse may last up to nearly 2 to 3 hrs,
while the longest possible duration of a Solar
eclipse at any place on the earth lasts not more
than 7 minutes.
198
199
 The
Celestial
Sphere
200
 The Celestial Sphere
Looking at the sky on a dark night, imagine that celestial
bodies are located on the inner surface of a vast, Earth-
centered sphere. This model is useful since we are only
interested in the relative positions and motions of celestial
bodies on this imaginary surface.

201
 Pn

d1
d

CELES
d’ m5 m4 m3 m1 m2
d

d1 d

TIAL
Q’ G Q

SP
QQ’ = Celestiald1 d

HERE
Equator or
Equinoctial
d1 d
dd’ = Diurnal Circle or
parallel of Declination
d1 d
Pn = Celestial Pole (North)
Ps = Celestial Pole (south) Ps
Pn – Ps = Polar axis
G = Greenwich Celestial Meridian
m1,m2 = Local Celestial Meridian (East)
m3,m4,m5 = Local Celestial Meridian (west)
 CELESTIAL SPHERE

This is a fictitious sphere which astronomers

have invented. It is at an infinite distance. It can also be
imagined as a conventional representation of the sky as
a spherical shell on which the celestial bodies appear
projected. So, to an observer on the Earth, the heavens
present the aspect of a large, inverted “spherical bowl”
with the Earth situated at it’s center and the sun,
moon, stars and planets situated around it’s surface, all
having the same distance from the Earth.

203
 This concept are not true, for the Earth is not at
the center of the Universe and the distance of the other
heavenly bodies from the earth varies greatly.
However, for the purpose of navigation, we assume
that the Earth is at the center of the Universe and that
all other heavenly bodies are situated on the surface of
a large sphere surrounding the Earth which we know
as the CELESTIAL SPHERE.

204
205
 . Elements of the Celestial Sphere

The Celestial Sphere is an imaginary sphere of

infinite radius with the Earth at its center. The north and
south celestial poles of this sphere are located by extension
of the Earth’s axis. The Celestial Equator (sometimes
called equinoctial) is formed by projecting the plane of the
Earth’s equator to the celestial sphere. A Celestial
Meridian is formed by the intersection of the plane of a
terrestrial meridian and the celestial sphere. It is the arc of a
great circle through the poles of the celestial sphere.

206
Elements of the celestial sphere. The celestial equator is the primary great circle. 207
 208
Elements of the celestial sphere. The celestial horizon is the primary great circle.
 The point on the celestial sphere vertically overhead
of an observer is the Zenith, and the point on the opposite
side of the sphere vertically below him is the Nadir. The
Zenith and Nadir are the extremities of a diameter of the
celestial sphere through the observer and the common
center of the Earth and the celestial sphere. The arc of a
celestial meridian between the poles is called the Upper
branch if it contains the Zenith and the Lower branch if it
contains the Nadir. The upper branch is frequently used in
navigation, and references to a celestial meridian are
understood to mean only its upper branch unless otherwise
stated. Celestial meridians take the names of their
terrestrial counterparts, such as 65° west.
209
 An hour circle is a great circle through the celestial poles
and a point or body on the celestial sphere. It is similar to a
celestial meridian, but moves with the celestial sphere as it
rotates about the Earth, while a celestial meridian remains
fixed with respect to the Earth.
The location of a body on its hour circle is defined by the
body’s angular distance from the celestial equator. This
distance, called declination, is measured north or south of
the celestial equator in degrees, from 0° through 90°,
similar to latitude on the Earth.

210
A circle parallel to the celestial equator is called a Parallel of
Declination, since it connects all points of equal declination. It is
similar to a parallel of latitude on the Earth. The path of a
celestial body during its daily apparent revolution around the
Earth is called its diurnal circle. It is not actually a circle if a
body changes its declination. Since the declination of all
navigational bodies is continually changing, the bodies are
describing flat, spherical spirals as they circle the Earth.
However, since the change is relatively slow, a diurnal circle and
a parallel of declination are usually considered identical.
A point on the celestial sphere may be identified at the
intersection of its parallel of declination and its hour circle. The
parallel of declination is identified by the declination.

211
 Two basic methods of locating the hour
circle are in use. First, the angular distance
west of a reference hour circle through a
point on the celestial sphere, called the
vernal equinox or first point of Aries, is
called Sidereal Hour angle (SHA) . This
angle, measured eastward from the vernal
equinox, is called right ascension and is
usually expressed in time units.

212
A point on the Celestial Sphere can be located by
it’s declination and SHA

213
The second method of locating the hour circle is
to indicate its angular distance west of a celestial
meridian. If the Greenwich celestial meridian is
used as the reference, the angular distance is
called Greenwich Hour Angle (GHA), and if the
meridian of the observer, it is called Local Hour
Angle (LHA). It is sometimes more convenient to
measure hour angle either eastward or
westward, as longitude is measured on the
Earth, in which case it is called meridian
angle (designated “t”).
214
A point on the celestial sphere can be located
by its declination and hour angle.
215
 Polar North (Pn) Greenwich
Diagram of Celestial Meridian
Sphere

Diurnal Circle or Parallel of Declination

Local Celestial Meridian West Local Celestial Meridian East

Celestial Equator or Equinoctial

Diurnal Circle or Parallel of Declination

216
Polar South (Ps)
 The Terrestrial Sphere (Earth)
 An understanding of the relationship that exists between the earth
and the celestial bodies is essential for establishing the position of the
celestial bodies in relation to the observer's position on earth, and for
understanding the phenomenon of time. First of all, to determine the
observer's position on the earth's surface, we assume that the earth is a
sphere and that a co-ordinate system (grid) based on the earth's axis
of rotation, which is perpendicular to the equatorial plane, is
established . The ends of the axis are designated as the north and
south poles of the grid. The great circle (formed by a plane passed
through the centre of the sphere) that is half way between the poles is
the equator. The great circles that pass through both the poles and
intersect the equator at right angles are meridians. The meridian,
which passes through the Greenwich Observatory, England, is the
reference meridian or zero meridian.
217
 N

L1
L

L1 Lo5 Lo4 Lo3 Lo1 Lo2

E RE
L

L1 L

RIAL SPH
E’ G E
EE’ = Equator on
Earth
L1L= Latitudes L1 L
Or Parallel of Latitude
N= North Terrestrial

TERREST
L1 L
Pole
S = South Terrestrial Pole
N – S = Polar axis L1 L
G = Greenwich Meridian on Earth
Lo1, Lo2 = Longitude on Earth ( East) S
Lo3, Lo4, Lo5 = Longitude of Earth (West)
 The two co-ordinates, LONGITUDE and
LATITUDE, determine the observer’s position on
the earth’s surface. Longitude is the angle
measured from the reference meridian, east or
west, along the equator, to the meridian that
passes through the site of interest. It varies from
0° to 180° east, or west. Latitude is the angle
measured from the equator, north or south along
a meridian, to the latitude circle that passes
through the site. It varies from 0° to 90° north, or
south. Thus, the position of the boat in the next
slide is, 20° N, 045° E.

219
The Terrestrial Sphere

220
Diagram of Terrestrial
Sphere

221
 Geographical Position of a Celestial
Body
While celestial bodies are constantly moving with respect
to the earth and their position vary with time. At any
given time, however any celestial body will be exactly
overhead at some point on the Earth’s surface. The
position of this point when expressed in latitude and
longitude is known as Geographical Position (G.P.) of the
body.

223
 When the body observed is the Sun, the
corresponding point on the Earth is called the
Sub –Polar Point; when the body observed is
the
Star the point is known as Sub-stellar or Sub
astral point.

224
 G.P. of a Star

Towards
Circle of
Equal
A.P Altitude
.

Away
A.P
.
 CIRCLE OF EQUAL ALTITUDES
It means a circle on the earth’s surface or every point
of which the altitude of any given celestial body is
the same at a given instant of time. The center of
this circle is the G.P. and the great circle distance
from this center to the circumference of the Zenith
Distance (Zx) of the body. Its diurnal or circle of
declination is also known as circle of perpetual
apparition.

226
 Celestial Bodies whose declination are near to the
Pole (almost 90°) and the Polar Distance (Px) is less
than the observer’s latitude, these body is always
above horizon and are termed to be Circumpolar
bodies.
The latitude of the observer is contrary or opposite to
the name of declination, the value of declination is
equal to the value of the co-latitude (PZ) the body will
never rise or be seen above the horizon. The diurnal
of circle of declination is also term as circle of
perpetual occulation.
If the declination is zero degrees (0°) the maximum
altitude of the body will be equal to the co- latitude
(Pz).
227
 Apparent Motion Due to Rotation of the Earth
Apparent Motion caused by the Earth’s rotation is much
greater than any other observed motion of the celestial
bodies. It is this motion that causes celestial bodies to
appear to rise along the eastern half of the horizon, climb to
the maximum altitude as they crosses the meridian, and set
along the western horizon, at about the same point relative
to due west as the rising point was to due east. This
apparent motion along the daily path, or diurnal circle of
the body is approximately parallel to the plane of the
equator. The apparent effect due to rotation of the earth
varies with the latitude of the observer.

228
 • APPARENT MOVEMENT OF THE CELESTIAL
BODIES WITH RESPECT TO THE
OBSERVER’S POSITION TO THE HORIZON,
LATITUDE AND DECLINATION.
• The daily rotation of the earth on it’s axis from
west and east causes the celestial bodies to
appear to move across the sky from east to west
everyday; that is to rise in the east and climb the
heavens until they reach the meridian and then
decline and set in the West. The circle in the
celestial sphere in which this movement takes
place is the diurnal circle of the body. The angle
that the diurnal circle of a particular body will
cross the observer’s horizon will depend
upon the latitude and declination of the body.
229
 There are only three kinds of movements that
the diurnal circle of the of the celestial body
crosses the observers horizon with respect to
the latitude and declination namely:
• The Parallel Sphere
• The Right Sphere
• The Oblique Sphere

230
 PARALLEL SPHERE
• The observer is at one of the poles. (N or S)
• The observers zenith (Z) and nadir (Na)
coincide the N or S celestial poles (Pn-Ps)
• Bodies having constant declination neither
rise nor set but circling the sky at constant
altitude, making one complete trip around
the horizon each day. At the north pole the
motion is clockwise and at the south pole the
motion is counter clockwise. Approximately
half the stars are above the horizon and
other half are always below.
231
PARALLEL
SPHERE

232
 Pn
Z
R E
H E
S P
EL
LL
R A
PA

Q1H HQ

EQUINOCTIAL OR CELESTIAL HORIZON

Na 233
Ps
 THE RIGHT SPHERE
• Observer at the Equator
• QQ’ coincide with Z-Na.
• Pn-Ps coincides with Hn – Hs
• Bodies appear to rise and set vertically. Every
celestial body is above the horizon approximately
half the time. Thus at any declination of the Sun
at anytime of the year, the observer equal length
of daytime and night time.
• Circumpolar bodies do not exist
• Amplitude is numerically equal to declination.

234
 RI
GH
T
SP
HE
R E

235
 Z (Q)

R E
H E
S P
H T
G
RI
PN Ps
HORIZON

236
N(Q’)
 THE OBLIQUE SPHERE
• Observer is neither at the Equator nor at the Pole. (Latitude
between 0°-90° N/S)
• The apparent motion is a combination of the two extremes.
• Circumpolar celestial bodies remain above the horizon
during the entire 24 hours circling the entire elevated pole
each day.
• An approximate equal part of the celestial sphere remains
below the horizon during the entire day.
• Other bodies rise obliquely along the eastern horizon, climb
to the maximum altitude at the celestial meridian and set
along the western horizon.

237
OBLIQUE SPHERE

238
 Z

R E
HE
S P Q
U E
LI Q
OB

H H

HORIZON

239
Nq
 COORDINATES
Latitude And Longitude
Latitude and Longitude are coordinates used to
locate positions on the Earth. The following are three
different definitions of these coordinates.

Astronomic latitude is the angle (ABQ) between a

line in the direction of gravity (AB) at a station and the
plane of the equator (QQ'). 

Astronomic longitude is the angle between the

plane of the celestial meridian at a station and the
plane of the celestial meridian at Greenwich. These
coordinates are customarily found by means of
celestial observations. 240
Three kinds of latitude at point A.

241
Geodetic latitude is the angle (ACQ,) between a
normal to the spheroid (AC) at a station and the plane
of the geodetic equator (QQ').
Geodetic longitude is the angle between the plane
defined by the normal to the spheroid and the axis of
the Earth and the plane of the geodetic meridian at
Greenwich. These values are obtained when
astronomical latitude and longitude are corrected for
deflection of the vertical. These coordinates are used
for charting and are frequently referred to
as geographic latitude and geographic longitude,
although these expressions are sometimes used to
refer to astronomical latitude.
242
Geocentric latitude is the angle (ADQ,) at the center
of the ellipsoid between the plane of its equator (QQ')
and a straight line (AD) to a point on the surface of
the Earth. This differs from geodetic latitude because
the Earth is a spheroid rather than a sphere, and the
meridians are ellipses. Since the parallels of latitude
are considered to be circles, geodetic longitude is
geocentric, and a separate expression is not used.
The difference between geocentric and geodetic
latitudes is a maximum of about 11.6' at latitude
45°.

243
Because of the oblate shape of the ellipsoid, the
length of a degree of geodetic latitude is not
everywhere the same, increasing from about 59.7
nautical miles at the equator to about 60.3 nautical
miles at the poles. The value of 60 nautical miles
customarily used by the navigator is correct at about
latitude 45°.

244
 Coordinate System

There are various systems on the

celestial sphere similar to the Latitude and
Longitude of the Earth. Of these, the
navigator is concerned only with the
Celestial Equator System (Equinoctial
System) and the Horizon System of
coordinates.

245
The Equinoctial System
• Comprises those coordinates
which fixes the geographical
position of heavenly bodies
with reference to the earth and
so the angular distances of the
heavenly bodies with reference
to some primary planes such
as observer’s meridian and the
Greenwich.
246
 THE CELESTIAL EQUATOR SYSTEM
(EQUINOCTIAL SYSTEM)
This is but an extension to the Celestial sphere of the
geographical system of the Earth. It comprises those
coordinates which fixes the geographical position (G.P.) of
the heavenly bodies with reference to the Earth and also the
angular distance of the heavenly bodies with reference to
some primary plane such as the observer’s meridian and
the Greenwich Meridian. These coordinates are computed
by astronomers and published yearly in the Nautical
Almanac where they are made available for the use of the
navigator.

247
 What can be measured from Equinoctial
System
Declination of the body – it correspond to the to the
latitude of a point on the Earth. It is measured from 0° to
90° North or South from the plane of equinoctial just as
the latitude is measured from the plane of the Earth’s
Equator.
Polar Distance (Px) – is the angular distance of any
celestial body from the elevated pole, that is, the pole
above the observer’s horizon.
Lat. and Dec. same name : Px = 90° - Dec.
Lat. and Dec. diff. name : Px = 90° + Dec.
248
Local Hour
Celestial Angle
Poles (Pn, (LHA)
Ps) – are– of a body
those is the
points where
the
angular
axis distance
of the earth
between
when theextended
plane of
onthe
both
directions
observer’sformeridian
an infinite
to thedistance
plane of
pierces
the hour
thecircle
celestial sphere.
passing thru The North
the body. end (Pn) of
It is measured the
westward
extended axis is known
from the observer’s as thefrom
meridian North0°Celestial
to 360° or
Pole, and the
from 0hrs South the
to 24hrs, endsame
(Ps) isasknown
GHA. as South
Celestial Pole. It is about this axis of the heavens
that the celestial sphere rotates.
Celestial Equator or Equinoctial (QQ’) – is a
great circle on the celestial sphere formed when
the plane of the Earth’s equator is extended to the
celestial sphere.
249
Greenwich Hour Angle
Celestial Meridian - is a(GHA) – is the
great circle angle
of the
between
celestialthe planes
sphere of the
which celestial meridian
corresponds to a of
Greenwich and the plane
terrestrial meridian of an hour
and actually circle the
represents
passing through
projection theabody.
of such It is to
meridian reckoned from 0°
the celestial
tosphere.
360° westward from the
The observer’s Greenwich
celestial Celestial
meridian has
Meridian.
two branches: the Upper branch of the celestial
Themeridian
GHA corresponds to the longitude
is the half between of a point
the celestial poles
on theincludes
that Earth’s observer’s
surface, theZenith,
only difference
the Loweris that
longitude
branch isisthemeasured
oppositefrom
half 0° toincludes
that 180° Easttheor
West
Nadirfrom the Greenwich.

250
Hour
HourAngle
Circle––isisthe anglecircle
a great between thecelestial
of the planes of
the meridian
sphere similar passing
to thethrough
celestialany selectedbut
meridian,
reference
passes thru point
thesuch
polesasandtheaposition
heavenlyofbody.
the It is
observer
considered or of
to Greenwich
rotate with or thethe hour angle
celestial body.of
FirstWhen
Note: point
the of
hourAries
circle and
of thethe planet
celestial bodyof the hour
coincides with the
circle passing
observer’s through
celestial meridian,athe
celestial body.
body is said to beBecause
on the
meridian.
the earth rotates on it’s axis from West to East,
Diurnal Circle
all celestial – is appear
bodies a projection of thecontinuously
to revolve parallel
latitudethe
around into the celestial
Earth from Eastsphere.
to West.Any celestial
This is
body travels
known along the
as Apparent diurnal circle as a result to
Motion.
the daily rotation of the earth on it’s axis.

251
Projection of the Pn
different circles on the Earth
Earth on to the
Celestial
Sphere Np

a b
d d’
Q E E Q’
d b1 d’
c
Sp

Celestial sphere
Ps 252
The Equinoctial System of coordinates showing measurements of declination,
polar distance and local hour angle. Source: Bowditch
253
Meridian Angle (t) – is the angular distance of the
body (minor arc) from the plane of the observer’s
meridian to the plane of the hour circle passing
through the body. It is measured East or West
depending upon the actual position of the body at
the time of the observation.
The value of (t) and the LHA of the body are the
same when the body is west of the observer’s
meridian but t = (360° LHA) when the body is
east of the observer’s meridian.

254
A point on the celestial sphere can be located by its declination and hour
angle. 255
• Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) – an arc
measured from the lower branch of
Greenwich(g) to the hour circle of the body in
a westerly direction.
• Local Mean Time (LMT) - an arc measured
from the lower branch of local meridian (m)
to the hour circle of the body in a westerly
direction.

256
• Sidereal Hour Angle (SHA) – is the angular
distance of the celestial body measured along
the Equinoctial from the hour circle of the
Vernal equinox (First Point of Aries) to the
hour circle of the body.
• Right Ascension (RA) – is the angular
distance measured westward from the hour
circle of the first point of Aries to the hour
circle passing through the celestial body. It is
usually expressed in time units.

257
A point on the Celestial Sphere can be located by it’s declination and
SHA. Source: Bowditch

258
259
The Celestial Equator or Equinoctial
System of Coordinates

260
The Celestial Equator or Equinoctial
System of Coordinates

261
262
 Measurement of celestial equator system of coordinates.

Measurement of celestial equator system of coordinates .

263
 The Ecliptic
As the Earth revolves in its orbit, the sun appears to move
across the celestial sphere along a path which is in the same
plane as the Earth’s orbit. The complete annual path is a
great circle known as Ecliptic.

THE OBLIQUITY OF THE ECLIPTIC

It is the angle of inclination of the Ecliptic toward the
Equinoctial, equal to 23°27’. This is due to the fact that the
axis of rotation of the earth is not perpendicular to
it’s orbit. It is this inclination that gives the earths’
it’s season.

264
Apparent motion of the Sun in the ecliptic.

265
 The Horizon System of Coordinates

• A set of celestial coordinates

based the celestial horizon as the
primary great circle and the series
of secondary vertical circles which
are great circles through the
zenith and nadir of the observer
and hence perpendicular to his
horizon.
266
The Horizon System of Coordinates
comprises those coordinates which are
measured by the navigator himself with
reference to a primary visible plane such as
horizon.
It is only by combining these two systems,
the equinoctial and the horizon systems, that
the position of the observer on the Earth’s
surface can be obtained.

267
 The Horizon System of Coordinates
• What can be measured from this system?
• 1. Altitude – measured from horizon to the body
maximum of 90°.
• 2. Zenith Distance (Zx) or (Co – Altitude) –
measured from the Zenith to the body.
• Zx = 90° - Altitude (if above the horizon)
• Zx = 90° + Altitude (if below the horizon)
• 3. Azimuth Angle (Z) – always measured from the
elevated pole. Thus named:
• N θ E or N θ W; if elevated pole is North
• S θ E or S θ W; if elevated pole is South
268
 The Horizon System of Coordinates
• 4. Amplitude – always measured from the Prime
Vertical (PV), thus named:
• E θ N or E θ S; if Body is rising.
• W θ N or W θ S; if Body is setting.
• 5. True Azimuth (Zn) – always measured
clockwise from 000° at the North Point through
360°.

269
270
The Horizon System of Coordinates

271
272
273
The horizon system of coordinates, showing measurement of
altitude, zenith distance, azimuth, and azimuth angle. 274
 Definition of Terms in the Horizon System of Coordinates
• Zenith (Z) – the point of the celestial sphere vertically
overhead the observer.
• Nadir (Na) - the point of the celestial sphere vertically below
the observer.
• Zenith Distance (Zx) – also called almucantar, the angular
distance from the zenith measured along the vertical circle
thru 90° to the body above the horizon. It is the complement
of altitude.
• Zx = 90 – altitude (if above the horizon)
• = 90 + altitude (if below the horizon)
• Vertical Circle – a great circle of the celestial sphere passing
to the zenith and nadir and it is perpendicular to the horizon
passing thru the body.

275
• Prime Vertical Circle (PV) – a principal vertical circle
passing the East and West point of the horizon. Simply
called Prime Vertical.
• Principal Vertical Circle - a principal vertical circle
passing the North and South point of the horizon and
passes through the poles of the celestial equator.
• Azimuth Angle (Az) – an angle measured from north or
south or the elevated pole to the vertical circle of the
body on the plane of the horizon either East or West
depending of the meridian angle of the body.

276
True azimuth (Zn) – an angle in a horizontal direction
along the plane of the horizon from a reference North 000°
clockwise through 360°

277
Measurement of horizon system of coordinates.

278
 Earth’s System of Coordinates

What can be measured from this system?

1. Declination – measured Northward or Southward
from the celestial equator to the body maximum of
90°.
2. Polar Distance (Px) or Co- Declination –
measured from either Pole to the body.
3. Meridian Angle (t) = measured from the local or
observer’s meridian to the body maximum of 180°.
It is named East when rising and West when
setting.

279
Earth’s System of Coordinates

280
281
 • Summary of Coordinates
Earth Equinoctial Horizon Ecliptic System
(Celestial) System System
Equator (E-Q) Celestial Equator or Horizon (Hn – Ecliptic
Equinoctial (QQ’) Hs)
North and South Poles Celestial Poles Zenith and Nadir Ecliptic Poles
(Np – Sp) (Pn/ Ps) (Zn – Na)
Prime Meridian Local or Greenwich Prime Vertical Circle Circle of Latitude thru
Celestial Meridian, Hour Principal Vertical the first point of Aries
Circle of Aries Circle

Meridian Hour Circle; Celestial Vertical Circle of the Circle of Latitude

Meridian body

Parallel of Latitude Diurnal Circle or Parallel Parallel of Altitudes Parallel of the Ecliptic
of Declination (d- d’) (h – h’)

Latitude Declination Altitude Celestial Latitude

Co- Latitude Co –Declination or Polar Co- Altitude or Zenith Celestial Co- Latitude
Distance (Px) Distance
Observer’s Meridian or Hour Angle (HA) SHA, Z, AZ, Zn and Celestial Longitude
282
Longitude GHA, LHA, RA, (t) Ampliitude
Amplitude - an angular distance north or south of
the Prime Vertical (E/W) or the arc of the
horizon or the angle at the zenith between the
prime vertical circle and the vertical circle
measured north or south from the prime
vertical to the vertical circle of the body.

Elevated Pole- the celestial pole above the horizon

of the same name as of the latitude of the
observer.

283
Dip or Height of Eye (He) – the vertical angle at the eye
of an observer between the horizon and the line of sight to
the visible horizon.

Altitude- an angular distance above the horizon and a

point on the celestial sphere it’s altitude that is parallel to
the horizon.

Altitude Circle or Parallel of Altitude – an imaginary

small circle passing through the body a moves and
changes it’s altitude that is parallel to the horizon.

284
(Horizon and Celestial Equator system
of coordinates )

285
HOW TO PROJECT A GIVEN LATITUDE
1. Initially, the Pn-Ps line should coincide with the
Horizon line (Hn-Hs) and QQ’ coincides with Z-Na
line.
2.If the given latitude is North, then measure the given
angle from Hn and then elevate the North Pole.
3.Following the Basic Principle: The altitude of the
elevated pole is equal to the declination of the
zenith which is equal to the latitude of the
observer.

286
 DIAGRAM ON THE PLANE OF THE CELESTIAL
MERIDIAN
From the east or west point
over the celestial horizon,
the orthographic view of the
horizon system of
coordinates would be similar
to that of the equinoctial
system from a point over the
celestial equator, since the
celestial meridian is also the
Principal Vertical Circle.

287
 DIAGRAM ON THE PLANE OF THE CELESTIAL
MERIDIAN Zenith
The Horizon would appear

Prime Vertical
as a diameter, parallels of
altitude as straight lines Parallels of altitudes
parallel to the horizon, the
Horizon
Zenith and Nadir as poles
90° from the horizon and
vertical circles would Vertical Circles
appear as ellipse and prime
vertical would appear as
diameter perpendicular to Nadir
the horizon.

288
 DIAGRAM ON THE PLANE OF THE CELESTIAL
MERIDIAN Zenith
A celestial body can be

Prime Vertical
located by its altitude and
azimuth or by its hour Parallels of altitudes
angle and declination.
Horizon

Vertical Circles

Nadir

289
 DIAGRAM ON THE PLANE OF THE CELESTIAL
MERIDIAN Zenith
The construction of the

Prime Vertical
diagram on the plane of the
celestial meridian will be Parallels of altitudes
greatly facilitated by
Horizon
becoming familiar with the
following facts:
Vertical Circles

1. The Meridian angle (t), in

time or arc, is the same on the equinoctial
as at the poles and Nadir
such measurement is made on the equinoctial.
290
 DIAGRAM ON THE PLANE OF THE CELESTIAL
MERIDIAN Zenith
The construction of the

Prime Vertical
diagram on the plane of the
celestial meridian will be Parallels of altitudes
greatly facilitated by
Horizon
becoming familiar with the
following facts:
Vertical Circles

2. The Azimuth angle is the

same on the horizon as at the
Zenith and such measurement Nadir
is made on the horizon.
291
 DIAGRAM ON THE PLANE OF THE CELESTIAL
MERIDIAN Zenith
The construction of the

Prime Vertical
diagram on the plane of the
celestial meridian will be Parallels of altitudes
greatly facilitated by
Horizon
becoming familiar with the
following facts:
Vertical Circles

3. The two diameters,

equinoctial and horizon are
fore shortened semi circumferences Nadir
and each represents 180°. Arcs on these diameters is
measured approximately. 292
 DIAGRAM ON THE PLANE OF THE CELESTIAL
MERIDIAN Zenith
The construction of the

Prime Vertical
diagram on the plane of the
celestial meridian will be Parallels of altitudes
greatly facilitated by
Horizon
becoming familiar with the
following facts:
Vertical Circles
4. The intersection of any two of
the following locates the body:
• Hour circle Nadir
• Vertical circle
• Diurnal circle
• Parallel of altitude. 293
 Steps to follow in constructing a diagram on the plane of the
celestial meridian:
Step 1.
Using a compass divider,
with any convenient radius
describe a circle to represent
the observer’s meridian.

294
 Steps to follow in constructing a diagram on the plane of the
celestial meridian:
Step 2.
Draw in the horizontal
diameter and label it Hn
(Horizon North) to the left
and Hs (Horizon South) to
the right. This fore
shortened circle will
Hn
represent the celestial Hs

horizon. The East point is at

the back and the West point
in front of the figure at the
center.
295
 Steps to follow in constructing a diagram on the plane of the
celestial meridian:
Step 3.
Draw in the vertical Prime Vertical
Z
diameter and Label it Z on
top, the observer’s Zenith.
The Nadir is diametrically
opposite label it N. This fore
shortened circle represents
Hn
the Prime Vertical. Hs

296
N
 Steps to follow in constructing a diagram on the plane of the
celestial meridian:
Step 4.
Elevate the celestial pole. If
Z
the latitude is North, the
pole is elevated on the north Elevated Pole
side.; if the latitude is South,Pn Polar axis
the pole is elevated on the
south side. Draw the “axis 30°N
of heavens”. Ex. 30°N. Hn Hs

Ps

Depressed Pole

297
N
 Steps to follow in constructing a diagram on the plane of the
celestial meridian:
Declination of
Step 5. the Zenith
Draw the equinoctial QQ’ at Elevated Pole
Z
right angle to the axis of the Q
heavens. Label the upper
branch Q and the lower Pn

branch Q’.
30°N
Hn Hs

Polar axis Ps

Q’
Depressed
298Pole
N
Example 1: Z
LAT 50º S
Q Declination of PS Elevated Pole
the Zenith
Lat of Obs. 50°S

H’N H’S

PN
Q’
Depressed Pole
Na
299
Combined
Z
Coordinates h’
System h d
Given: Pn Q

º
20
Lat = 45°N

l=
c
De
Decl = 20°N
LAT= 45º
ALT
Hn Hs

d’
Q’ Ps

N
300
ORTOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
A Diagram on the Plane of the Z
Celestial Meridian
PN
Q
d

H’N H’S

LAT 50º N
Q’ DEC. 15º S
PS
d’
Na
301
302
 ORTOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
A diagram on the Plane of Celestial Meridian
1.The circle represents the plane of the
observer’s meridian or celestial meridian.
2. The horizontal line Hn – Hs represents
the Celestial Horizon, (North-left and South-
right)
3. The center of the circle represents the
east and west point of horizon.
4. Z represent the Zenith and N the Nadir of
observer

303
 Z
Celestial Meridian

East and West

Point of the Horizon

Hn Hs

N
304
5. The vertical line Z - Na represent the
Prime Vertical.
6. The oblique line QQ’ represent the
celestial equator or the Equinoctial.
7.The Polar North (Pn) is the elevated pole
while the Polar South (Ps) is the depressed
Pole.
8. The Pn-Ps line represents the Earth’s
axis. It is also the 90° hour circle.

305
 Prime Vertical Z
Celestial Meridian

Pn Q’

Elevated Pole

Hn Hs

East and West

Point of the
Horizon
Polar Axis or
90° Hour
Circle Q Ps

N
Depressed Pole 306
9. The chord dd’ represents the
Diurnal circle.
10.The arc Hn-Pn which represents
the Altitude of the elevated Pole is
equal to the Latitude of the observer.
11.The arc Qd or Q’d’ represents the
declination of the sun.

307
 Prime Vertical Z
d’ Celestial Meridian

Pn Q’

Elevated Pole

Hn Hs

East and West

Point of the
d Horizon
Polar Axis or
90° Hour
Circle Q Ps

N
Depressed Pole 308
 Summary of Relationships
Demonstrated on the Diagram on
the Plane of the Celestial Meridian.

When Declination (d) and Latitude (L)

are Of Same NAME:
The body is above the horizon more
than half the time, crossing the 90° hour
circle (Pn-Ps line) above the Horizon.
Length of day time is longer than length
of night time.

309
 Z
PN d’
LAT 45º N Q’
DEC. 20º N

H’N H’S

d
Q
PS
Na
310
 When Declination (d) and Latitude (L)
are:

Of Contrary NAME:

The body is above the horizon less

than half the time, crossing the 90°
hour circle (Pn-Ps line) below the
Horizon. Length of night time is
longer than length of day time.

311
LAT 45º N Z
DEC. 20º S d’
PN
Q’
d’

H’N H’S

Q
PS
d
Na
312
 When Declination (d) and Latitude (L)
are Of Same NAME:
If Dec. + Lat = 90°. The body is on the
Horizon at lower transit and does not set
(circumpolar).

313
LAT 50º N Z d’
DEC. 40º N
Sum = 90° PN
Q’

d
H’N H’S

Q
PS
Na
314
 When Declination (d) and Latitude
(L) are Of Contrary NAME:

If Dec. + Lat = 90°. The body is on the

Horizon at upper transit.

315
LAT 50º N Z
DEC. 40º S
Sum = 90° PN
Q’

H’N H’S
d’

Q
PS
d Na
316
When Declination (d) and Latitude (L) are:
Of Same NAME:

Declination = Latitude. The body is in the

Zenith at upper transit.

317
LAT 20º N Z
d’ Q’
DEC. 20º N

PN

H’N H’S

PS

d
Q
Na
318
 Of Different NAME:

Declination = Latitude. The body is at the

Nadir at Lower transit.

319
LAT 20º S Z
Q
DEC. 20º N d

PS

H’N H’S

PN

d’ Na Q’
320
 When Declination (d) and Latitude (L)
are:
Of Same NAME:
Declination > Co - Latitude. The body
does not set. It remains above the
horizon for the entire day.

321
 Z d’
PN
Q’

d
H’N H’S

Q
LAT 50º N PS
Co-Lat = 90° - Lat
= 90° - 50° Na Declination = 60°N

Co-Lat = 40° 322

 Of Different NAME:
Declination > Co- Latitude. The body
does not rise. It remains below the
horizon for the entire day.

323
 Z
PN
Q’

H’N H’S

d’

Q
LAT 50º N PS
Co-Lat = 90° - Lat
Na d Declination = 60°S
= 90° - 50°
Co-Lat = 40° 324
 When Declination (d) and Latitude (L)
are:
Of Same NAME:
Declination > Latitude. The body
crosses the upper branch of the
celestial meridian between the zenith
and elevated pole and does not cross
the PV.

325
 Z d’
PN
Q’

d
H’N H’S

Q
LAT 50º N PS
Declination = 60°N
Na
326
 When Declination (d) = 0 at any Latitude
The body is above the horizon half the time,
following the celestial equator (QQ’) which is
also the diurnal circle (dd’) and rises and sets
at the PV (Zn is exactly E or 090ºT or W 270ºT.
Length of daytime is equal to length of night
time.

327
 Z Q’ d’

PN
20ºN
H’N H’S

PS

LAT 20º N
Declination = 0°
Q Na
d 328
 Z
PS

dQ
60ºS

H’N H’S

Q’ d’

LAT 60º S
Declination = 0° PN Na
329
HOUR ANGLE

AND

TIME DIAGRAM
330
 A time Diagram is a diagram on the plane
of the Celestial Equator or Equinoctial in
which the celestial equator appears as
circle, and celestial meridians and hour
circle as radial lines.
It is used to facilitate solution of time
problems and other problems involving
arcs of the celestial equator or angles at the
pole by indicating relationship between
various quantities involve.
Givens as viewed from a point over the
South Pole (Ps) westward direction being
counterclockwise.
331
332
333
 Summary of Coordinates used in in time Diagram
Coordinates Measured Measured Direction Maximum
From To Value
LHA M Body Westward 000° - 360°
GHA G Body Westward 000° - 360°
SHA Body Westward 000° - 360°
“t” M Body Either East 000° - 180°
or West
RA Body Eastward 00H – 24 H
LMT m Westward 00H – 24 H
LAT m Westward 00H – 24 H
GMT g Westward 00H – 24 H
GAT g Westward 00H – 24 H
LST M Westward 00H – 24 H
GST G Westward 00H – 24 H
334
Hour Angle Diagrams:
- to avoid perspective drawings,
convention is to use flat circle, viewed
from south pole
- circumference
of circle is
equator
- hour angles
measured
westward, shown
anticlockwise 335
Hour Angle Diagrams:
- top of circle “M” represents observer’s
meridian with solid line to centre of circle
- this solid line
known as upper
branch

336
Hour Angle Diagrams:
dashed line drawn at 180º to M, is
called
lower branch
and labelled “m”

337
Hour Angle Diagrams:
- after M located arbitrarily at top of
diagram, next locate Greenwich “G”
meridian
- if M has Lo =
75ºE, Greenwich
will be 75º west
or anti-
clockwise from
M; draw as solid
line to centre 338
Hour Angle Diagrams:
- draw dashed line opposite from
centre of circle at 180º to G
- known as “g”
or lower branch
of G
- g represents
International
Date Line
339
 RULES
1.Easterly direction clockwise
2.Westerly direction counterclockwise
3.To measure “M” from “G” East longitude
clockwise and west longitude counterclockwise
G” is present.
4.To measure “G” from “M” East longitude to the
left and west longitude to the right “M” is present.
5.When longitude exceeds 180° subtract in from
360° and change its name.
Example: Longitude= 240°W
= 360° - 240°
Longitude = 120° E

340
 EXAMPLE
Given: Longitude = 130°E
GHA of = 110°
LHA of = 150°
GHA of = 010°
GHA of = 260°

Find : LHA of
GHA of
“t”
SHA
RA 341
LONG. = 130ºE M

GHA =260°

LHA =150° m
GHA = 10º’ 342
• Ex. No. 2.
• Find the LHA of a star if the GHA of the star
is 80º ’ and the longitude is 175º’ W.
• A. 240º
• B. 265º
• C. 256º
• D. 092º

343
LHA * = 265º ’ gM LONG. = 175º W

GHA * = 80º
mG
344
• Solution:
• GHA * = 80º ( + 360 )
• GHA * = 440º
• Longitude = 175º W ( - )
• LHA Star = 265º

345
• Example 3. Find the longitude from the
following given GHA of Aries 250º ,LHA of Aries
050º
• A. 110º E
• B. 160º W
• C. 160º E
• D. 110º W

346
 LHA φ 50º’ M
g

LONG 156º 56’ E

G GHA φ 252º 17’
m
347
• Solution:
• GHA φ = 250º
• LONG = ?
• LHA φ = 050º ( + 360º )
• LHA φ = 410º
• GHA φ = 250º ( - )
• LONG = 160ºE

348
The Navigational Triangle
A triangle formed by arcs of great circles of a sphere
is called a spherical triangle. A spherical triangle on
the celestial sphere is called a celestial triangle. The
spherical triangle of particular significance to
navigators is called the navigational triangle, formed
by arcs of a celestial meridian, an hour circle, and a
vertical circle. Its vertices are the elevated pole,
the zenith, and a point on the celestial sphere (usually
a celestial body). The terrestrial counterpart is also
called a navigational triangle, being formed by arcs of
two meridians and the great circle connecting two
places on the Earth, one on each meridian.

349
The vertices are the two places and a pole. In great-
circle sailing these places are the point of departure
and the destination. In celestial navigation they are
the assumed position (AP) of the observer and
the geographical position (GP) of the body (the
point having the body in its zenith). The GP of the
Sun is sometimes called the subsolar point, that of
the Moon the sub lunar point, that of a satellite
(either natural or artificial) the subsatellite point, and
that of a star its substellar or subastral point. When
used to solve a celestial observation, either the
celestial or terrestrial triangle may be called
the astronomical triangle.

350
352
The navigational triangle is shown on a
diagram on the plane of the celestial
meridian. The Earth is at the center, O.
The star is at M, dd' is its parallel of
declination, and hh' is its altitude circle.
353
 LAT =50º N
EQUIDISTANT N DEC = 20º
DIAGRAM ON THE PLANE ALT.= 30º
OF THE CELESTIAL “t” = 30º E
HORIZON Lat = 50°N Azimuth (Zn) = 100°
P
t d’
d
Amp = E 32°N
W Zn
Q Z E
Q’
X
Vertical Circle
Celestial Meridian

Hour Circle

Prime vertical Celestial Horizon

S
Declination
 Pn Celestial Triangle
Polar Distance
Z
Zenith Distance
CIRLCE OF DECLINATION Observer
N X Summer Solstice

CE
L ES
Q1 T IA
L Q

EQUINOCTIAL OR CELESTIAL EQUATOR

HO
R IZ
ON

S
Winter Solstice

Na
Ps
 PARTS OF
NAVIGATIONAL
Pn TRIANGLE
PZ 3 VERTICES:
Pn or Ps= celestial pole
Z = Zenith of Observer
X = body observed

Px
Z
“t” AZ Azimuth (Zn)

ZX d
d1 x

Declination
H1 d e
tu 3 ANGLES:
alti
Q P or “t”= meridian angle
Z = True azimuth (Zn)
Q1 X = parallactic angle
(not used in navigation)
H
3 SIDES:
Px = Polar distance
Zx = Zenith Distance
Pz = Co- latitude 356
NAVIGATIONAL TRIANGLE (PZXΔ) PX = Polar Dist
X1 body Hor ZX = Zenith Dist
PZ = Colat
X3 body PV
HOUR CIRCLE
HOUR CIRCLE
P
1 X
CEL. MER.

X 3 Z
VERT. CIRCLE VERT. CIRCLE
P = Mer. Angle X = Parallactic Angle

Z = Azimuth. Angle 357

358
Horizon – is a great circle of the celestial
sphere midway between the Zenith and the
Nadir or it is a line resembling or
approximating such circle.
KINDS OF HORIZON
1.Sensible (true) horizon
2.Sea level (geoidal) horizon
3.Celestial (rational) horizon
4.Visible horizon
5.Geometrical horizon

359
360
The horizons used in navigation.
361
Rational or Celestial Horizon – is a plane
passing through the center of the Earth and parallel to
the sensible horizon. A great circle of the celestial
sphere whose plane is perpendicular to the direction
to the direction of the Zenith and passes through the
center of the earth.
Sensible or True Horizon- the plane passing
through the point of the eye of the observer, parallel
with the Rational horizon being perpendicular to the
direction of the observer’s zenith. Is a small circle on
the celestial sphere whose plane is parallel to the
rational horizon , and which passes through the
observer’s eye.

362
Sea or Visible Horizon- the apparent
boundary or that line where the sea and sky
appear to meet which to an observer when not
in sight of land appears to encircle him. The
radius of these circle varies with the height of
the observer above sea level.
Geodial or Sea Level Horizon – it is an
apparent boundary between the sky and sea
level forming a circle at the center of which the
observer stands. Is an imaginary plane parallel
to the sensible horizon, but through the point
on the geoid (the sea level surface of the
earth) vertically below the observer. 363
 Geometrical Horizon
Is below the visible horizon by the amount of
terrestrial refraction. A straight line from the
eye of the observer tangent to the Earth leads
to the geometrical horizon.The intersection of
the celestial sphere and an infinite number of
straight line tangent to the surface of the earth
and radiating from the eye of the observer.

364
 • Terms and Definition
1. Dip = it is a vertical angle at the eye of the observer
between the horizontal line of sight to the sensible
horizon.
Dip = 0.97√ht. in ft. Or 0.76√ht. in meters
2. Augmentation = it is a sextant altitude error in which
the apparent increase in semi-diameter of celestial
body as it’s altitude increase or due to the decrease of
the distance from observer.
3. Semi – diameter = it is the angular distance between
the limb (upper or lower) of the sun or moon and it’s
center.

365
AUGMENTATION – APPARENT INCREASE IN
SEMI DIAMETER OF CELESTIAL BODY AS ALTITUDE
INCREASES.

REFRACTION
SEMI - DIAMETER
Visible and Sensible Horizon

Sensible horizon

dip
Celestial Horizon
Visible Horizon
4. Refraction - is the change in direction of a
wave due to a change in its speed. This is
most commonly observed when a wave
passes from one medium to another at any
angle other than 90° or 0°. Refraction of
lights is the most commonly observed
phenomenon, but any type of wave can
refract when it interacts with a medium, for
example when sound waves pass from one
medium into another or when water waves
move into water of a different depth.

368
REFRACTION
Parallax - the difference in direction of a
celestial object as seen by an observer from
two widely separated points. The
measurement of parallax is used directly to
find the distance of the body from the Earth
(geocentric parallax) and from the Sun
(heliocentric parallax). The two positions of the
observer and the position of the object form a
triangle.

6Parallax in altitude – geometric parallax of a

celestial body at any given altitude
HELIOCENTRIC
PARALLAX

GEOCENTRIC
PARALLAX
The Marine Sextant

373
The Marine Sextant
It is a hand held
instrument which
measures the angle
between two visible
objects by bringing into
coincidence at the eye of
the observer and direct
ray from one point and a
double reflected ray from
the other.
374
The most important
function of the Sextant
is the measurement of
altitudes of celestial
bodies above the
visible sea horizon.
Sometimes it is turned
to it’s side and used for
measuring the
difference in bearing or
two terrestrial object.

375
Because of its great
value for determining
position at sea, the
Sextant has been a symbol
of navigation for more than
200 years. It shares with
the compass and the
chronometer the honor of
being one of three
instruments that have made modern ocean
navigation possible. To the Navigator, the quality of
his instruments the care he gives it, and the skill
which he makes observations are matters of
professional pride.
376
The name “Sextant” is
from the Latin Sextans
“the sixth part”. It is so
named because its arc
approximates one –sixth
of a circle although, on
account of the optical
principle involved,
the instrument measures
angles of 120°. Most modern instrument
measure something more than this.

377
• Optical Principles of Marine Sextant
• 1. When a ray of light is reflected from plane
surface, the Angle of Reflection is equal to the
Angle of Incidence.
Angle of reflection
Angle of Incidence

378
2. The angle between the first and final
direction of a ray of light has undergone
double reflection in the same place is
twice the angle that the two reflecting
surface make with each other.

3. If the mirror is parallel, the incident ray

from any observed body must be parallel
to the observer’s line of sight through the
horizon glass; therefore the altitude of the
body is zero.

379
 Optical Principles of a Marine Sextant
A AB – is a ray of light from celestial body
F
B - is the index mirror
C – is the horizon glass

D
C D – is the eye of the observer
BC & CG - are construction EF & CF – are construction lines
lines parallel to perpendicular to the index mirror and
index mirror and horizon horizon glass respectively
glass. G
380
Parts of a Sextant

381
 Parts of a Sextant:
Frame- part of the
sextant on which the other
parts are mounted. Usually
made of brass.
383
 Limb
is the lower part of the
frame and carries the
arc.
385
 Index arm
is the movable bar of the
same material as the
frame. It pivots about the
center of the curvature of
the limb.
387
Tangent screw
is mounted perpendicularly
on the end of the index
arm, where it engages the
teeth of the limb.
389
 Release lever
is a spring-actuated clamp that keeps
the tangent screw engaged with the
limb’s teeth, the observer can
disengaged the tangent screw and
move the index arm along the limb
for rough adjustment.
391
Micrometer drum
mounted at the end of the
tangent screw, graduated in
minutes of altitude. Used to
make fine adjustments of the
index arm.
393
 Vernier
Adjacent to the
micrometer drum and
fixed on the index arm
which aids in reading
fractions of a minute
395
Index mirror
is a piece of silvered plate glass
mounted on the index arm,
perpendicular to the plane of the
instrument, with the center of the
reflecting surface directly over
the pivot of the index arm.
397
Horizon glass
is a piece of optical
glass silvered on its
half nearer the plane.
399
 Telescope
is mounted with its axis parallel to
the plane of the frame. The
magnification of the telescope
permits the observer to judge
contact between the celestial
body and the sea horizon.
401
Index shade glasses
are of optically ground glass
mounted perpendicular to the arc,
and are pivoted so that they can
be swung into or out of the line of
sight between the index and
horizon mirrors.
403
 Horizon shades
similar to the index shades,
but of lesser density, and
serve to reduce the glare of
reflected sunlight on the
horizon.
405
 Handle
usually of wood or plastic,
is mounted on the frame at
a location and angle for
good balance and easy grip
with the right hand.
407
Graduated Arc
it maybe inscribe on the
limb, or it maybe inscribed
on the separate plate
permanently attached to
the limb.
409
410
 STEPS IN READING A
SEXTANT

The degrees of arc

is read on the limb. 411
 STEPS IN READING A
SEXTANT

The minutes of arc

is read on the
micrometer drum. 412
 STEPS IN READING A
SEXTANT

The tenths of
minutes of arc is
read on the vernier. 413
7

What is the sextant reading in ?

a. 50°00.2'

b. 50°00.8'

c. 50°07.0'

d. 50°09.7'

414
8

What is the sextant reading ?

a. 25°50.2'

b. 25°53.4'

c. 25°57.4'

d. 26°02.4'

415
8

What is the
sextant
reading ?

a. 29°50.2'

b. 30°53.4'

c. 29°42.5'

d. 30°42.5'

416
 ERRORS OF A SEXTANT
I.Non adjustable errors:
• Prismatic Error – it is present if the two
faces of the shade glasses and mirror are
not parallel.
• Centering error - it is due to the index
arm that is not pivoting at the exact center
of curvature of the arc of the limb that can
be determined by measuring known
angles after the adjustable error has been
removed.
417
• Graduation Error – it is occurs in the
arc, micrometer drum and vernier of the
sextant which is improperly cut or
incorrectly calibrated or a sight
imperfection in graduation.

• Note: There mentioned errors as a rule

are small and the arc constant for various
angles. It is the duty of the navigator to
examine his sextant regarding the errors
and to correctly correct them.

418
II. Adjustable errors:
Error of Perpendicularity– the error in the
reading of marine sextant due to the non
perpendicularity of the index error to the frame.
To check a Sextant for Perpendicularity
Place the index arm about 35° on the arc, and
hold sextant to it’s side, with the index
mirror “up” and towards the eye. Observe
the reflected views of the sextant arc. If
the two views do not appear to be joined
in a straight line, the index mirror is not
perpendicular.
419
Testing the perpendicularity of the index mirror. Here
the mirror is not perpendicular.
420
Side error- the error in reading of a marine
sextant due to non perpendicularity of the
horizon glass to the frame.

Testing the perpendicularity of the horizon glass. On the left, side error does
not exist. At the right, side error does exist. 421
Index error – it is due to primarily to lack of
parallelism to the index mirror and the horizon
glass at (0°) zero reading.
Finding Index Error of a sextant:
Set the sextant exactly at zero. Hold the sextant in
the vertical position and look through the
telescope and horizon mirror at the horizon. If
the true and reflected horizons are in continuous
straight line No index error is present. If not
adjust the micrometer drum until they appear as
straight line. The Micrometer reading will be the
value of Index error. Reading “on the arc” are
subtracted from sextant angle and “off the arc”
are added at sextant angles.
422
423
424
• How to determine the index error or I.E
is by:
1.The Horizon
2.A star
3.The Sun
Index Error is either Positive or Negative
On or positive error -----should be subtracted
Off or negative error ---- should be added
Error of Collimation - it is due to the line
of sight through the telescope not parallel
to the plane of the instrument.
425
 Sextant Altitude Corrections
Altitudes of celestial bodies are measured by a hand held
Sextant. After taking a sight necessary corrections must be
made to the direct sextant reading. The principal altitude
corrections to be made are: (1) Index correction (2) Dip
Correction (3) Refraction Correction (4) Semi diameter
correction and (5) Parallax Correction.
When all of these sextant altitude corrections have been
applied, the value obtained is the altitude of the center of the
celestial body above the celestial horizon, for an observer at the
center of the earth. This value is called Observed altitude (Ho),
is compared with the Computed Altitude (Hc) to find Altitude
Intercept (“a”) used in establishing the line of position LOP.

426
Altitude Correction
Sample solution in finding Intercept:
Hs = Sextant altitude
I.E = Index Error (+ off the arc; - on the arc)
Dip = Height of Eye Correction (always -)
Ha = Apparent altitude
HaC = Apparent Altitude Correction
Ho = Observed Altitude
Hc = Computed Altitude
“a” = Greater Observed Altitude Towards

428
1. Index Correction (correction for inaccuracies in
reading)
Index Error is the error of the sextant itself. This error
can be checked by sighting at the horizon with the
sextant with it’s reading set at 0°00.’0. If the reflected
image of the horizon in the horizon mirror does not
form a straight line with the directly viewed horizon
through the clear part, an error exist. Adjust the
micrometer drum until the reflected and direct image of
the horizon are brought into coincidence forming a
straight unbroken line.

429
The reading of the sextant is the Index Error. To the left
of 0° is “on” the arc and to the right is “off” the arc.
Read the drum normally then subtract the value from
60. Let say, by eye inspection, the reading is 57.2’,
subtract from 60. The I.E. is 2.8 “off” the arc.

430
NOTE:
On the arc (above 0°) : positive error, negative correction
(I.E. - )
Off the arc (below 0°) : negative error, positive correction
(I.E. + )

431
 2. DIP CORRECTION
(correction for inaccuracies in reference level)
Dip of the horizon is the angle by which the visible
horizon differs from the horizontal at the eye of the
observer (Sensible Horizon). Thus DIP is the
discrepancy in altitude reading due to the height of the
observer’s eye above sea level. If we could measure the
altitude of a body with our eyes at the sea water level,
visible and sensible horizons would coincide, this
correction would not be necessary. DIP correction is
sometimes called Height of Eye Correction.

432
 Celestial Body

Sensible Horizon
Dip

H.E.
Visib
le Horiz
o n

Note:
If H.E. = 0; Dip correction = 0
DIP increases with greater H.E. above the water surface.
DIP Correction = 0.97 √H.E in Feet
DIP Correction = 1.76 √H.E. in Meters

434
 3. REFRACTION CORRECTION
(correction for bending of light from body)
Refraction is the difference between the actual altitude
and apparent altitude due to the bending of the light
passing through media of varying densities.

Note:
Refraction Correction is Maximum at the Horizon and Zero
at the Zenith.
As the Zenith Distance increases, the refraction becomes
greater.

At an altitude of 20°, it is about 2.’6 at, at 10°=5.’3, at

5°=9.’9, at the horizon = 34.’5.
435
 Atmospheric Refraction
Z
Apparent Position

Actual Position

Refraction

re Apparent Position
h e
p
os
m
At
Earth

Actual Position 436

 Types of Refraction
Atmospheric Refraction - refraction resulting when a ray
of radiant energy passes obliquely through the atmosphere.
It may be called astronomical refraction or terrestrial
refraction.

Astronomical Refraction – if the ray enters the

atmosphere from outer space, as from a star. It’s effect
causes celestial bodies to appear higher in the sky than the
actual position.

Terrestrial Refraction – if it emanates from a point on or

near the surface of the earth. This affects dip of the horizon.

437
 4. SEMI DIAMETER CORRECTION
(adjustment to equivalent reading at center of body)

Semi diameter of celestial body is half the angle, at the

observer’s eye, subtended by the visible disk of the body.
When measuring the altitude of the Sun or Moon by sextant
it is customary to observe the upper edge of the upper or
lower limb of the body because the center of the body
cannot be easily judged. In this case the semi diameter of
the disk of the body must be subtracted from or added to the
measured angle.

438
 Semi diameter Correction
Upper Limb

Note:
SD at Perihelion = 16.’3
SD at Aphelion = 15.’8
Lower Limb

Semi Diameter
Correction

Altitude of Lower limb Horizon

439
 Phase Correction
That correction to sextant altitude due to offset of the
apparent center of a body because of its phase, particularly
planets Mars and Venus and the Moon.

Visible Horizon
Lower Limb

Upper Limb
Visible Horizon

Note: If the celestial body is on the actual observer’s

horizon, it’s distance is approximately the same as from the
center of the earth; but if the body is on the Zenith, its
distance is less by about the radius of the Earth. At any
altitude the augmentation is equal to the sine of the altitude
times the value at the zenith. Augmentation increases the
size of the semi diameter correction, whether positive or
negative. 440
 AUGMENTATION
The apparent increase in the semi diameter of a celestial
body as it’s altitude increases, due to the decreased
distance from the observer. The term is used principally
in reference to the moon.

441
• Note: If the celestial body is
on the actual observer’s
• horizon, it’s distance is
Apparent Diameter at
approximately the same as Moon the Zenith
from the center of the earth;
but if the body is in the
Zenith, it’s distance is less by
about the radius of he earth.
At any altitude the
augmentation is equal to the
Moon
sine of the altitude times the
value at the zenith.
Augmentation increases the
size of the semi diameter
correction, whether positive
or negative. Earth Apparent Diameter at
the Horizon
442
 5. PARALLAX CORRECTION
(adjustment to equivalent reading at center of earth)
Parallax is the difference in the apparent position of the
body viewed from the surface of the earth and the center
of the earth. While the angle must be measured from the
center we can view the body only from the surface, and
the difference must be adjusted.

443
 Zenith (virtually no Parallax)

Parallax in Altitude

Observer

Sensible Horizon

Celestial Horizon

Center

EARTH

Horizontal Parallax (H.P.) (Max Value)

Parallax correction varies with the altitude of the observed body 444
Note:
As the Altitude increases, the Parallax decreases until
the Body reaches the Zenith with an Altitude of 90°,
when the Parallax is Zero. The sun has a small Parallax
which never exceed 0.’2 of an arc. The Planets have
each a very small variable Parallax. The Stars have no
Parallax as their distance from the earth is so great. The
moon has the biggest parallax since it is the nearest
celestial body. Parallax increases as the body
approaches closer to the earth.

445
 TYPES OF PARALLAX
Heliocentric Parallax – the difference in apparent
direction or positions of celestial body outside the solar
system, as observed from the earth and sun. a nearer star
would appear to change slightly with respect to the
background of a more distant star. Also called Stellar
Parallax.
Geocentric Parallax – the difference in apparent direction
of a celestial body from a point on the surface of the
earth and from the center of the earth. The difference
varies with the body’s altitude and distance from the
earth. It is sometimes called Parallax in Altitude.

446
 TYPES OF PARALLAX
Horizontal Parallax (H.P.) – the geocentric parallax
when a body is on the horizon. The expression is usually
used only in connection with the moon, for which the
tabulated horizontal parallax is given for an observer on
the equator.

Since the earth is an oblate spheroid, and not a sphere, the

parallax varies slightly over different parts of the earth.
The value of Equatorial horizontal parallax is greater
than the Polar horizontal parallax.

447
 Summary of Sextant Adjustment

I. Non - Adjustable Errors:

1. Prismatic Error Two faces of the shade glasses
and Mirrors are not Parallel.

2. Centering Error The Index Arm is not pivoted at

the exact center of Curvature of
the Arc.
3. Graduation Error Occur in the arc, micrometer
drum and vernier of the sextant
which is improperly cut or
incorrectly calibrated.

448
 Summary of Sextant Adjustment
II.Adjustable Errors:
1. Error of Index mirror not perpendicular
Perpendicularity to frame.

2. Side Error Horizon Mirror not

perpendicular to frame.
3. Index Error Index mirror no parallel to
horizon mirror when the reading
is set to 0°
4. Collimation Error Telescope not parallel to Frame.

NOTE: The first two errors are errors of perpendicularity while the
last two are errors of paralellism. In making adjustments, never
tighten one adjusting screw without first loosening the other screw
which bears on the same surface.
449
 Summary of Principal Sextant Altitude Correction

Name Sign Bodies to which applies

1. Index Error (I.E.) + Off the arc All Celestial bodies

- On the arc
2. Height of Eye or Dip _ (Minus) All Celestial bodies

3. Refraction (Ref.) _ (Minus) All Celestial bodies

4. Semi- Diameter + Lower Limb (L.L.) Sun and Moon
(S.D.) - Upper Limb (U.L.) Planet have small S.D.
Stars have no S.D.

5. Parallax (Par) + Moon, sun, Venus, Mars

Note: Total Corrections (Ref., Par. And SD) are more complicated for those bodies which
are nearer to the earth. 450
 TIME IN NAVIGATION
Time – may be defined as the measure of the period of
duration or the elapse interval between events. It express
the relationship between the past, present and the future.

Basics of time
The natural units of time that we find most suitable for
our activities are provided by two motions of the earth. The
day is the period of the earth’s rotation while the year is
the period of the Earth’s revolution around the sun.

451
Sidereal Day – the First point of Aries is used to measure
the sidereal day as this point is on both the Equinoctial
and the Ecliptic it being the intersection of these great
circles where the sun is suppose to cross in it’s apparent
annual journey on it’s orbit from north to south.
Sidereal Time – represents absolute time as the reference
point used for it’s measurement is considered as fixed in
space.
Solar Time – is based on the hour angle of the sun with
respect to a selected meridian. It is more in keeping with
our daily routines as the apparent movement of the sun is
responsible for the phenomena of day and night.

452
 Apparent and Mean Solar Time
The Apparent Sun is the sun we see. The LHA of
it’s center plus 12 hours is the Apparent Solar Time. The
apparent solar day begins at the time when the true sun
transits the lower branch of the observer’s celestial
meridian and is reckoned from 0 to 24 hours.

453
 Greenwich Apparent Time (GAT) and Local Apparent
Time (LAT)
The apparent solar day begins when the true sun transits
the lower branch of a meridian and apparent noon when the
sun transits the upper branch.
The LAT is the hour angle of the true sun plus 12 hours
with respect to the observer’s meridian. The GAT is the
hour angle of the true sun plus 12 hours with respect to the
Greenwich meridian.

454
Equation Of Time

Mean solar time, or mean time as it is commonly called,

is sometimes ahead of and sometimes behind apparent solar
time. This difference, which never exceeds about 16.4
minutes, is called the equation of time.
The navigator most often deals with the equation of time
when determining the time of upper meridian passage of
the sun. The sun transits the observer’s upper meridian at
local apparent
noon.

455
Were it not for the difference in rate between the mean and
apparent sun, the sun would be on the observer’s meridian
when the mean sun indicated 1200 local time. The apparent
solar time of upper meridian passage, however, is offset
from exactly 1200 mean solar time. This time difference,
the equation of time at meridian transit, is listed on the
right hand daily pages of the Nautical Almanac.
The sign of the equation of time is positive if the time of
sun’s meridian passage is earlier than 1200 and negative if
later than 1200. Therefore:
Apparent Time = Mean Time – (equation of time).

456
Fundamental Systems Of Time
The first fundamental system of time is Ephemeris Time
(ET). Ephemeris Time is used by astronomers in
calculating the fundamental ephemerides of the sun, moon,
and planets. It is not used by navigators.

The second fundamental system of time of most interest to

navigators is Universal Time (UT). UT is the mean solar
time on the Greenwich meridian, reckoned in days of 24
mean solar hours beginning with 0h at midnight.

457
Universal Time, in principle, is determined by the average
rate of the apparent daily motion of the sun relative to the
meridian of Greenwich; but in practice the numerical
measure of Universal Time at any instant is computed from
sidereal time.
Universal Time is the standard in the application of
astronomy to navigation. Observations of Universal Times
are made by observing the times of transit of stars.

458
The Universal Time determined directly from astronomical
observations is denoted UT0. Since the earth’s rotation is
non uniform, corrections must be applied to UT0 to obtain
a more uniform time. This more uniform time is obtained
by correcting for two known periodic motions.

459
The third fundamental system of time, Atomic Time (AT),
is based on transitions in the atom. The basic principle
of the atomic clock is that electromagnetic waves of a
particular frequency are emitted when an atomic transition
occurs. The frequency of the cesium beam atomic clock is
9,192,631,770 cycles per second of Ephemeris Time.

460
The advent of atomic clocks having accuracies better than
1 part in 10-13 led in 1961 to the coordination of time and
frequency emissions of the U. S. Naval Observatory and
the Royal Greenwich Observatory. The master oscillators
controlling the signals were calibrated in terms of the
cesium
standard, and corrections determined at the U. S. Naval
Observatory and the Royal Greenwich Observatory were
made simultaneously at all transmitting stations. The result
is Coordinated
Universal Time (UTC).

461
Time And Longitude
Suppose a celestial reference point were directly over a
certain point on the earth. An hour later the earth would
have turned through 15°, and the celestial reference
would be directly over a meridian 15° farther west. Any
difference
of longitude between two points is a measure of the angle
through which the earth must rotate to separate them.

462
Therefore, places east of an observer have later time, and
those west have earlier time, and the difference is exactly
equal to the difference in longitude, expressed in time
units.
The difference in time between two places is equal to the
difference of longitude between their meridians,
expressed in time units instead of arc.

463
The Date Line
Since time is later toward the east and earlier toward the
west of an observer, time at the lower branch of one’s
meridian is 12 hours earlier or later depending upon the
direction of reckoning. A traveler making a trip around
the world gains
or loses an entire day. To prevent the date from being in
error, and to provide a starting place for each day, a date
line is fixed by international agreement. This line
coincides with the
180th meridian over most of its length.

464
In crossing this line, the date is altered by one day. If a
person is traveling eastward from east longitude to west
longitude, time is becoming
later, and when the date line is crossed the date becomes
1 day earlier. At any moment the date immediately to the
west of the date line (east longitude) is 1 day later than
the date immediately to the east of the line.

When solving problems, convert local time to Greenwich

time and then convert this to local time on the opposite side
of the date line.

465
Zone Time
At sea, as well as ashore, watches and clocks are
normally set to some form of zone time (ZT). At sea
the nearest meridian exactly divisible by 15° is usually
used as the time meridian or zone meridian. Thus,
within a time zone extending 7.5' on each side of the
time meridian the time is the same, and time in
consecutive zones differs by exactly one hour. The
time is changed as convenient, usually at a whole
hour, when crossing the boundary between zones.
Each time zone is identified by the number of times
the longitude of its zone meridian is divisible by 15°,
positive in west longitude and negative in east
longitude.
466
This number and its sign, called the zone
description (ZD), is the number of whole hours that
are added to or subtracted from the zone time to
obtain Greenwich mean time (GMT).
The mean sun is the celestial reference point for zone
time.
Converting ZT to GMT, a positive ZT is added and a
negative one subtracted; converting GMT to ZT, a
positive ZD is subtracted, and a negative one added.

467
Example: The GMT is 15h27m09s.
Required: (1) ZT at long. 156°24.4’ W.
(2) ZT at long. 039°04.8’ E.
Solutions:
(1) GMT = 15h27m09s
ZD = +10h (rev.)
ZT = 05h27m09s

(2) GMT = 15h27m09s

ZD = –03h (rev.)
ZT = 18h27m09s

468
469
 The Chronometer

It is a time piece of
clockwork device
which set to keep the
standard time and the
greenwich time.
470
• Chronometer Time – it is the time
indicated by a chronometer and is set
approximately to GMT and is not reset
until it is overhauled and cleaned.
• Chronometer Error – it is the change in
time and the difference of chronometer
reading the GMT in 24 hrs or daily
obtained by means of time tick
observation.

471
 QUARTZ CRYSTAL
OSCILLATOR CLOCK
It is a modern time piece used as a
substitute for a marine chronometer.
An electrically powered piece that is
more accurate compared to a
chronometer and it can be set ahead or
behind even while running.

472
• Error of the Chronometer:
• 1. Original error or Chronometer Error – is
the error of the Chronometer on a certain
specified date as observed by the
manufactured or a certain observatory which
deals with this matter.
• 2. Daily Rate- an error computed for several
days whether losing or gaining.
• 3. Accumulated Error – it is the daily error
multiplied by the number of days elapsed.

473
The customary method of determining the
Chronometer error is by time signals
being broadcast by the signal station and
a vessel is equip with a radio receiver that
can obtain time signals any where time
ticks is broadcast by several maritime
nations.
Most time signals are sent automatically
by using astronomical clocks accurate to
within 1/20th of the second.

474
 Rules on how to determine
whether the error of the
Chronometer is Losing or
Gaining.
1.If slow or losing:
•If the chronometer error has gone
from fast to less fast.
•If the chronometer error has gone
from fast to slow.
• If the chronometer error has gone
from slow to more slow. 475
2. If fast or gaining:
•If the chronometer error has gone
from slow to less slow.
•If the chronometer error has gone
from slow to fast.
• If the chronometer error has gone
from fast to more fast.

476
 How to obtain the chronometer error by
time tick (GMT)
Example 1.
GMT = 08h 00m 00s
Chronometer reading = 08h 00m 48s
Chronometer error = 00h 00m 48s Fast

Example 2.
GMT = 08h 00m 00s
Chronometer reading = 07h 57m 44s
Chronometer error = 00h 02m 16s slow

477
 How to find and obtain the daily
rate and accumulated error.

•Put down the errors taken from the 1st

to the 2nd observations with an interval
of time and take note the of the errors if
fast or slow. If both errors are fast or
slow, take their difference by
subtracting the lesser from the greater.
If one is fast and the other is slow, take
their sum by adding.
478
•Convert the result to seconds if the error is
minutes, then divide it by the numbers of days
elapsed from the date of the 1st Number of
days. The result is the Daily Rate.
•Multiply the daily rate again by the number of
days from the future projected time desired.
The result is the Accumulated Error.
•Apply the accumulated error or rate to the
chronometer time which you have put down
and to which you have already applied to the
2nd error Add if Losing and Subtract if
Gaining. The result is GMT.
479
Application of errors:
“fast” errors are subtracted and “slow” errors
are additive

FORMULAS:
Accumulated Error = Days elapse x Daily Rate
Daily Rate (D.R.) = Accumulated Error (A.E.)
Days Elapse (D.E.)
Days Elapse (D.E.) = Accumulated Error (A.E.)
Daily Rate (D.R.)

480
Example:
August 20 the chronometer error at GMT
17h 00m 00s has a daily rate of 4.5
seconds losing and the Chronometer
error was 13m 29s slow on GMT, the
observer wants to take an observation of
the sun on August 25th on GMT 11h 00m
00s.
Find: Accumulated error, Chronometer
error at the time of observation.

481
Solution:
August 25 GMT = 11h 00m oos
August 20 GMT = 17h 00m 00s
Days Elapse = 4 days 18 hrs or 4.75 days

Accumulated Error = Daily Rate x Days Ellapse

= 4.5s x 4.75
Accumulated Error = 21.375 sec. or 21.4 sec.
slow or losing.

August 20 C.E. = 13 min 29 sec slow

August 25 A.E. = 21.4 sec slow
(losing) 482
May 18 GMT = 16h 00m 00s
May 27 GMT = 05h 30m 00s
Diff 8 days = 13h 30m 00s or 8.5 days

A.E. = Daily rate x Days ellapse

= 0.6 x 8.5
= 5.1 sec fast or gaining

483
 TWILIGHT
It is a period before sunrise when
darkness is giving way to daylight and
after sunset when daylight is giving
way to darkness.

Evening after sunset --------------------DUSK

Morning before sunrise ------------- DAWN

484
 Rising, Setting and Twilight Phenomena

Sunrise – is the first appearance of the sun’s

upper limb above the visible horizon.

Sunset – is the disappearance of the upper

limb below the visible horizons. As the upper
limb appears to touch the horizon at sunset, it
is actually more than 30° below the celestial
horizon, because of the effect of refraction.

485
 The increased obliquity at higher latitudes
explains why days and nights are always about
the same length in the tropics, and the change of
length of the day becomes greater as latitude
increases, and why twilight lasts longer in
higher latitudes. Evening twilight starts at
sunset, and morning twilight ends at sunrise.
The darker limit of twilight occurs when the
center of the Sun is a stated number of degrees
below the celestial horizon. Three kinds of
twilight are defined: civil, nautical and
astronomical.

486
Civil Twilight-

Limb of the sun

below the visible
horizons and the
center of which
is not more than
6° of arc or 0h
24m below the
celestial horizon.

487
Nautical Twilight

Limb of the sun

below the visible
horizons and the
center of which
is not more than
12° of arc or 0h
48m below the
celestial horizon.

488
 Astronomical
Twilight

Limb of the sun

below the visible
horizons and the
center of which
is not more than
18° of arc or 1h
12m below the
celestial horizon.

489
The three kinds of twilight

490
 Lighter Darker
Twilight At darker limit
limit limit

Horizon clear; bright

Civil –0°50' –6°
stars visible

Nautical –0°50' –12° Horizon not visible

Astronomical –0°50' –18° Full night

491
 In high latitudes, some of the phenomena do not occur
during certain periods. Symbols are used in the Almanac to
indicate.

•Sun or moon does not set, but remains continuously

above the horizons, indicate by an open triangle ( ).
•Sun or moon does not rise, but remains continuously
below the horizons, indicate by a solid rectangle ( ).
•Twilight last all night, indicated by four slashes (////)

492
• Note: In any problem unless it is specified it
will always mean astronomical twilight.
• Twilight is an important time of day to the
navigator , for this is only period most
navigators can obtain good star sight with
marine sextant.
• A navigator is concerned only with civil and
nautical twilights within the darker limits of
astronomical twilight, full night has set in and
the horizon is not visible for use of sextant
observation.

493
 The Nautical Almanac
The Main Objectives of the Nautical Almanac

The Nautical Almanac is to provide in a convenient form

the data required for the practice for celestial navigation at
sea. The coordinates of celestial bodies are tabulated in the
Nautical Almanac with respect to Greenwich Mean Time.
Using the GMT (UTC) of an observation, the navigator
extracts the GHA and declination of the body observed.
The position of the body establishes one vertex of the
navigational triangle; the navigator completes the
components of this triangle from the information he obtains
from his sextant sights and solve the triangle to obtain a
line of position.
494
495
 Basic Components of the Nautical Almanac
The Nautical Almanac contains astronomical data that
are necessary to determine the geographical position
(GP) of celestial bodies at any instant of time. It consist
principally of data from which the GHA and declination
of all the celestial bodies used in navigation can be
obtained for any instant of Greenwich Mean Time
(GMT).

496
 Format of the Nautical Almanac

The main data for all navigation bodies of interest

to the navigator are presented on a pair of facing
pages known as the daily pages. These pages
cover a three day period. The left hand pages are
used primarily for the tabulation of the data for the
stars and navigational planets these bodies are of
interest primarily during morning and evening
twilights. The right hand pages presents the
ephemeristic data for the sun and moon together
with the times of twilight, sunrise, sunset, moonrise
and moonset.
497
The extreme left hand column of each page
contains the dates of the week, and the hours of
GMT also known as UT for the three day period. It
should be carefully noted that the date is that at
Greenwich.

Ephemeristic – mean lasting only for a day or use

only for a short time; transitory or things of only
short lived relevance. In the case data obtained
from the daily pages of the Nautical Almanac, the
GHA, declination and other data is good only for
the particular given time of GMT and date.

498
Left hand Pages
The left-hand pages for each set of three days
gives, for each hour, the GHA of Aries and the
GHA and declination of the navigational planets –
Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. Also on this page
is a tabulation of the SHA of each planet and the
time of it’s meridian passage (Mer. Pass), and
separately, the time of the meridian passage of
Aries. A list of 57 selected stars, arranged in
alphabetical order together with their SHA and
declination is also given. These are the prime
navigational stars selected for their magnitudes,
and the ones most frequently observed by the
navigators. 499
The Left
Hand
Page of
the
Nautical
Almanac
500
Values of v and d:
At the bottom of each column of data for a planet
there are the “v” and “d” values for that body.
These values change slowly during the 3 day
period and a single entry is covered by that page.
The “d” values are the amount in arc by which
declination changes during each hour, “v” values is
the difference between the actual change of GHA
in one hour and the amount in arc by which GHA
departs from the basic rate used in the almanac
interpolation tables, which are based on a constant
rate of change. These tables are included to
facilitate the interpolation of GHA and Declination
respectively for immediate times.
501
Right-hand Pages

Data for the sun and moon are presented on the

right-hand page with GHA and Declination tabulated
to one –tenth minute of arc for each hour.

For the moon, additional values for the horizontal

parallax (HP) and “v” and “d” are tabulated for each
hour. The moon’s rate of change of GHA and
Declination varies considerably. For the sun, “v” is
omitted entirely and “d” is given only once at the
bottom of the page for a three day period.

502
Right-hand Pages

Also shown on the right hand page are data for each
day covering the equation of time, meridian passage
of the sun and moon and the age and phase of the
moon. Values are given for the semi-diameters
(SD) of the sun (for the three day period) and of the
moon (for each day).

Additionally, the right hand pages provide data on

sunrise and sunset, moonrise and moonset and the
beginning and ending of twilight.

503
The Right
Hand
Page of
the
Nautical
Almanac
504
Increments and Corrections

To establish the GHA and declination of a body for a

specific time of observation other than an exact hour
of GMT, it is necessary to interpolate, that is
calculate intermediate values between those that
appear in the hourly tabulation. For the intermediate
time stated in minutes and seconds past the whole
hour printed in the tables, the change in GHA and
Declination are assumed to be at uniform rate. This
is not strictly true; however, the error involved is
negligible when using stars.

505
 The
Increments
and
Correction
Table of
the
Nautical
Almanac
506
Star Positions
The SHA and Declination of 173 brighter stars,
including the 57 navigational stars listed on the daily
pages are tabulated for each month near the end of
the white section of the Almanac. No interpolation is
needed, and the data can be used in precisely the
same way as those selected stars on the daily
pages. The stars are arranged in alphabetical order.

Additional Tables
A table for correcting sextant observation (altitude
correction table) of the sun, stars and planets for
atmospheric refraction is found in the inside front
cover and facing pages.
507
 The
Altitude
Correction
Table of
the
Nautical
Almanac

508
 The
Polaris
Table of
the
Nautical
Almanac

509
 The
Conversion
of arc to
Time Table
of the
Nautical
Almanac
510
 Using the Almanac
The time used as an entering argument in the almanac is
12+ GHA of the mean sun and is denoted by UT.

The main content of the Almanac consist of data from

which the GHA and the declination of all those bodies used
for navigation can be obtained for any instant UT.

511
 Finding the GHA and Declination of the Sun

Procedure:
1)Find the UT of observation.
2)Enter the daily page with the whole hour before the given
UT, unless the time is a whole hour, and take out the
tabulated GHA and declination.
3) Record the “d” value given at the bottom of the
declination column.
4)Enter the Increments and Correction tables for the
number of minutes of UT. If there are seconds, use the next
earlier whole minutes

512
5). On the line corresponding to the second to the second of
UT, extract the value from the Sun-Planet column. Add
this to the value of GHA from the daily page. This is
the GHA of the sun.
6) Enter the corrections table for the same minute with the
“d” value and take out the corrections. Give this the (+)
sign if declination is increasing and (-) if declination is
decreasing. This is the declination of the sun.
The correction table for GHA of the Sun is based upon a rate of
change of 15° per hour, the average rate during a year. At most
times at the rate differs slightly. The slight error is minimized by
adjustment of the tubular values. The “d” value is the that the
declination changes between 1200 and 1300 on the middle day
of the three shown.

513
 Finding the GHA and Declination of the Moon

Procedure:
1)Find the UT of observation.
2)Enter the daily page with the whole hour before the given
UT, unless the time is a whole hour, and extract the
tabulated GHA and declination.
3) Record the corresponding “v” and “d” values tabulated
on the same line and determine the sign of the “d” value.
4)Enter the Increments and Correction tables for the
number of minutes of UT and for the line for the seconds
of UT, take the GHA corrections from the moon column.

514
5). Enter the correction table for the same minute with the
“v” value, and extract the correction. Add both of these
correction to the GHA from the daily page. This is the
GHA of the moon.
6) Enter the same correction with the “d” value and
extract the correction. Give this correction the sign of
the “d” value and apply it to the declination from the
daily page. This is the declination of the moon.

515
 Finding the GHA and Declination of the Planet

Procedure:
1)Find the UT of observation.
2)Enter the daily page with the whole hour before the given
UT, unless the time is a whole hour, and take out the
tabulated GHA and declination.
3) Record the “d” value given at the bottom of the
declination column.
4)Enter the Increments and Correction tables for the
number of minutes of UT. If there are seconds, use the next
earlier whole minutes

516
5). On the line corresponding to the second to the second of
UT, extract the value from the Sun-Planet column. Add
this to the value of GHA from the daily page. This is
the GHA of the planet.
6) Enter the corrections table for the same minute with the
“d” value and take out the corrections. Give this the (+)
sign if declination is increasing and (-) if declination is
decreasing. This is the declination of the planet.

517
 Finding the GHA and Declination of the Star

Procedure:
1)Enter the daily page table with the whole hour before the
given UT., unless this time is a whole hour and extract the
tabulated GHA of Aries.
2)Record the tabulated SHA and declination of the star
from the listing on the left hand daily page.
3)Enter the increments and correction table for the minutes
of UT and on the line for the seconds of UT, extract the
GHA corrections from the Aries column.

518
4. Add this correction and the SHA of the star to the GHA
on the daily page table to find the GHA of the Star at a
given time (if the sum exceeds 360° the result is the
GHA of the star) no adjustment of declination is
needed.

519
Finding Times of Sunrise and Sunset from the Nautical
Almanac

Procedure:
1)Enter the daily page table and extract the LMT for the
Latitude next smaller than your own (unless it is exactly a
whole number)
2)Apply a correction from Table to interpolate for
Latitude, determining the sign by inspection.
3)Convert the LMT to UT using the Longitude express in
time.
4)Apply ZD to UT to obtain ZT of observation.

520
 Sextant Altitude Correction Tables
The altitude as read from the sextant directly (Hs) must
be corrected to obtain the observed altitude (Ho).

Solution:
Sextant Altitude (Hs) of the body =
I.E. (off +) (on -) =
H.E. (Dip) (-) =
Apparent Altitude (Ha) of the body =
Main Correction (LL +) (UL - ) =
Observed Altitude (Ho) of the body

521
522
At GMT 1200H, on May 12, the
chronometer read 12h 04m 21s. At GMT
1600H on May 18, chronometer reads 4h
04m 25s.
Find:
1.CE of GMT 1200H May 12.
2.CE of GMT 1600H May 18.
3.Daily Rate
4.CE of GMT 0530H May 27.

523
Solution:
1. GMT = 12h 00m 00s May 12
C. reading = 12h 04m 21s
C. error = 04m 21s fast May 12

2. GMT = 16h 00m 00s May 18

C. reading = 04h 04m 25s
C. error = 04m 25s fast May 18
May 12 – GMT = 12h 00m 00s
May 18 – GMT = 16h 00m 00s
Diff. 6 days = 4 hrs or 6.2 days
524
C.E. = 4m 21s fast May 12
C.E. = 4m 25s fast May 18 (-)
Diff. = 4s fast or gaining

3) Daily Rate = Accumulated Error (A.E.)

Days ellapse (D.E.)
= 4
6.2
Daily Rate = 0.6 fast or gaining

525
Accumulated Error = 4m 25.0 s fast
= 5.1 s fast
Chronometer Error = 4m 30.1 s fast
at 0530H on May 27.

526