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Principles/Foundations of Artificial Intelligence.: Inferencing Methods

The document discusses various methods of inferencing used in artificial intelligence systems, including forward chaining, backward chaining, deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning, case-based reasoning, and fuzzy logic reasoning. It provides examples and explanations of how each technique works and how rules and facts are used to draw logical conclusions. The overall goal of reasoning techniques is to determine the state of the world, appropriate actions, or how the world behaves based on available information.

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Sabria Omar
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96 views35 pages

Principles/Foundations of Artificial Intelligence.: Inferencing Methods

The document discusses various methods of inferencing used in artificial intelligence systems, including forward chaining, backward chaining, deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning, case-based reasoning, and fuzzy logic reasoning. It provides examples and explanations of how each technique works and how rules and facts are used to draw logical conclusions. The overall goal of reasoning techniques is to determine the state of the world, appropriate actions, or how the world behaves based on available information.

Uploaded by

Sabria Omar
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Principles/Foundations of Artificial Intelligence.

Inferencing methods
Inferencing

 By inferencing refers to the method used in a knowledge-


based system to produce correct conclusions using existing
facts.
 It involves finding clues(facts),Putting them together inorder
and drawing conclusions from them
 Synonyms of inferencing include:

 Deduce

 Figure out

 Interpretation

 Reason

 Drawing conclusions
Goals of reasoning

The goal of reasoning is usually to:


1. Determine the state of the world
2. Determine what actions to take
3. Determine how the world behaves
Inferencing techniques
 Forward chaining
 Deductive reasoning
 Inductive reasoning
 Backward chaining
 case-based Reasoning (CBR)
 Fuzzy logic reasoning
Forward chaining
 Forward chaining: involves working from the existing

facts to draw a conclusion.


 It is also called the data-driven approach.


Forward chaining
 To chain forward, match data in working memory

against 'conditions' of rules in the rule-base.


 When one of them fires, its conclusion is liable to

become condition for another rule so the cycle


continues.
Forward chaining: Example
Inference the following rule using forward chain
strategy:
“If soil hasn't enough nitrogen, then it is poor soil. If it is poor
soil, then corn grown on it will rot”
Forward chaining reasoning :
This soil is low in nitrogen; therefore this is poor soil;
consequently corn grown on it will rot.
Forward chaining: Example
 If X croaks and eats flies - Then X is a frog.
 If X chirps and sings - Then X is a canary.
 If X is a frog - Then X is green
 If X is a canary - Then X is yellow

 Question:
 Your pet Y croaks and eats flies
 Use forward chain to determined the colour of the
pet?
Example: solution
 Step one: convert verbs into symbols
 Croaks=A, eats flies=B,frog =c ,chirps and sings=D, canary=E, green=F , yellow=
G

if A and B Then C
If C then F
If D then E
If E then G

 Answer
 FACTS : A, B ,

 Forward Chaining: A and B →C

C→F
 F=green

the pet is Green in colour


Backward chaining algorithm

 Involves working from the conclusion to the facts.


 Sometimes called the goal-driven approach.
 Take the goal to reach.

 To chain backward, match the goal against 'conclusions'


of rules in the rule-base.
 Determine what facts produced (fired) by matching rules
 The facts become new goals (sub-goals) for the search.
 The search continues backward until it identifies to the
facts of the problem.
 The path is formed from facts to goal although it does so
in backward order.
Backward chaining: Example
 e.g. Here are two rules:

 If soil hasn't enough nitrogen, then it is poor soil.

 If soil is poor, then corn grown on it will rot.

 Backward chaining: This corn is rotten; therefore it must

have been grown on poor soil; therefore the soil must be


low in nitrogen.
Backward chaining: Example
The crop has rotten . What are the likely causes?

Solution
Goal : C
 If A then B
 If B then C

C →B Fires
Sub goal : B
B → A fires.
B-poor soil
A- Low nitrogen
Exercise
 You are given an expert system with several rules
pertaining to the interpersonal skills of a job applicant
 R1: if the applicant answers questions in straight
forward manner then she is easy to converse with.
 R2: If the applicant seems honest then she answers in
straight forward manner.
Exercise
 R3: If the applicant has item on her resume that are
found to be untrue then she is not honest.
 R4: If the applicant is able to arrange an appointment
with the executive assistant then she is able to strike up a
conversation with the executive assistant.
 R5: IF the applicant strikes up a conversation with the
executive assistant and the applicant is easy to converse
with then she is amiable.
 R6: If the applicant has adequate interpersonal skills.
Then we will offer her the job.
Exercise
 Solve the following problems:
 a) assume that the applicant does not have any items

on her resume that are found to be untrue and that


she is able to arrange an appointment with the
executive assistant.
 Run a forward chain analysis to find out whether we

will offer her a job.


Exercise

B) it is known that the applicant answers questions in


straight forward manner.
 Run backward chain analysis to find out

 Whether we will offer a job to the applicant


Exercise

C) we have just discovered that the applicant was able


to arrange an appointment with the executive
assistant.
It is also known that she is honest.
Does she have interpersonal skills?.
Exercise : solution
 Step1: Use symbols to represent knowledge.( facts and sub
goals)
A –Straight forward
B- Easy to converse
C-honest
D-items on the resume to be untrue
E – able to arrange an appointment
F- able to strike a conversation
G-amiable
H- adequate interpersonal skills
I- offer a job
Exercise : solution
Step2: Use symbols to represent rules
If A then B
If c then A
If D then not c
If not D then c
If E then F
If F and B then G
IF H then I
Exercise : Solutions

A) facts : not D,E


Goal: I
Forward reasoning
not D,C,A,E,F -failure
no job( we could reach Goal I)

B) facts: A,
Goal:I
Backward Reasoning : I,H
– failure
- Could fire A as one of the facts
Exercise : solutions
C) KNOWN FACTS: E, C
GOAL =H
Forward Reasoning :E, C,A,F –failure
-Could fire H as one of the conclusions
No interpersonal skills.
Deductive Reasoning
 Reasoning from the general to the specific

 For example, start with a general statement:

 All cars have tires.

 You can apply this general statement to specific

instances and deduce that a Ford Escort, a Toyota


Camry, and a Mercedes Benz must have tires.
Deduction Example
 All chefs are violinists.
 Mary is a chef.
 Therefore Mary is a violinist
Deductive Reasoning example
Broad Specific
Generalizations Conclusions
Example: All varsity My art history
course
courses are hard will be hard
Inductive reasoning
This involves Reasoning from the specific
Facts to conclude a general rule.

 i.e. A general rule is concluded out of specific cases among which all the rules are
applicable

 It is more commonly known as learning


Inductive reasoning example
 18 16 14 ?? ??

12 10

 The general rule in this example is:


 Decrease by 2
 Or
 F(x)= x-2
Inductive reasoning problems

What is the general rule of writing the following numbers?

5 10 15 ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ??
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
General Rule is:-

Increase by five
Or
F(x)=x+5
Inductive Reasoning

Example :

Specific Reasoning Broad Principles


Example:
My history All varsity courses
requires a lot of requires a lot of reading
reading
Case-based Reasoning (CBR)
 Adapt solutions used to solve old problems for new
problems

 CBR finds cases that solved problems similar to the


current one, and adapts the previous solution or solutions
to fit the current problem, while considering any
difference between the two situations
Fuzzy logic reasoning
This refers to reasoning with uncertainty by using vaguely
defined (fuzzy) predicates and rules.
It is a form reasoning that is approximate rather than
precise.
The method assumes that it is difficult to
Predict accuracy of a rule with a 100%
Certainty.
Fuzzy logic reasoning
Uncertainty can be represented using the
Following elements:
1. Numeric values e.g 8/10,80%
 Example:
 If a person coughing, with a whizzing sound during cold
weather, then it is 80% certain that he has asthma.
Fuzzy logic reasoning
2.Likert scale.- scale in which respondents indicate their level
of agreement with statements that express a favourable or
unfavourable attitude toward a concept being measured.

Examples :
 Strongly unfavourable to the concept

 somewhat unfavourable to the concept

 undecided

 Somewhat favourable to the concept

 Strongly favourable to the concept


Fuzzy logic reasoning example

Estimate inflation in Kenya in 2011 is most likely (very


likely, unlikely) to be high
Fuzzy logic reasoning example

 For example, an extremely simple temperature


regulator that uses a fan might look like this:

 IF temperature IS very cold THEN stop fan


IF temperature IS cold THEN turn down fan
IF temperature IS normal THEN maintain level
IF temperature IS hot THEN speed up fan

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