NUMBER

THEORY
DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
Number theory is a branch of pure
mathematics devoted primarily to the study
of the integers and integer-valued functions.
German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss
said, "Mathematics is the queen of the
sciences—and number theory is the queen of
mathematics."
DIVISIBILIT
Y
NUMBERT THEORY
The concept of addition, subtraction and
multiplication are basic but lead to more
complicated concepts, like Divisibility.
Divisibility is an statement about two integers
a and b
Informally, an integer a divides b if a goes
“exactly” into b
 Geometric idea of Divisibility
(only for positive integers)
Represent numbers by rectangle, like so

1
2
Example 3 divides 12
or 12 divisible by 3
3 3 3 3

12
 Example 5 divides 15
or 15 divisible by 5
5 5 5
5 goes into
15 three 15
times
Definition (Divisibility)
Let a ≠ 0 and b be integers.
We say that a divides b, denoted by a | b, if
and only if
There is an integer k such that
b = ka
Notation
Example:
a b b k a
1. It is true that 4 | 20, because 20 = 54
a b b k a
2. It is true that -3 | 21, because 21 = (-7) 
(-3).
3. It is FALSE that 5 | 12 , because there is
NO integer k such that 12 = k 5.
Notation: If it is false that a | b, we write a | b
Example:
It is true that 2 | 3 because there is no integer
k such that 3 = k  2.

You can set k = 3/2, but 3/2 is not an integer.

Never confuse a | b with b/a.
a | b is a statement ( could be True or False

b/a is a number (rational)

 Basic
Properties of
DIVISIBILIT
Y
NUMBERT THEORY
Theorem: let a, b, c, x and y be integers.
The following statements are true.

1) If a | b and b | c, then a | c.
2) If a | b and b | c, then a (xb + yc).
₼

3) If k Z is not zero, then a | b if and only if

ka | kb
1) If a | b and b | c, then a | Transitivity
c.Example.
a b b c
We know that 4 | 12 and 12 | 36
a c
Conclusion: 4 | 36
2) If a | band a | c, then a | (xb + yc).
Linear Combination
Example.
We know that 3 | 6 and 3 | 9 by the Theorem,
we get that

3 | (6x + 9y), for all x, y is an integer.

we can choose any x, y as an integer in the
statement
3 | (6x + 9y)
to make it true
For instance, we can take x = -12 and y = 13

To obtain that 3 | 45
Lets prove the statement
2) If a | band a | c, then a | (xb + yc).
Proof: We assume that a | b and a | c. Then
means
b = ka for some k is integer (1)
c = ta for some t is integer (2)
 Goal: a | (xb + yc) or
(xb + yc) = (some integer) a

Multiply (1) by x and (2)

xb = by
xkay (3)
yc = yta (4)
We add (3) and (4) to obtain

xb + yc = xka + yta
= (xk + yt) a
We can say that

a | b if b/a = k, for some integer k.

That is, a | b if b/a is an integer.

Is this a problem easily solved by a calculator?
Let’s do an experiment
Determine whether 3 | b, where b is
20000000000000000000000000000000000
00000000000000000000000000000000000
00000001000000000000000000000000000
0000000000000000000
It is FASTER to answer this question using
properties of divisibility.
200000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
000000000000000000000000000001000000000000000000
0000000000000000000000000000

Theorem: Criterion of Divisibillity by 3)

Let b be an integer.
3 | b and only if the sum of the digits of b is
divisible by 3
2 + 1 = 3 Divisible by
Example: 3Consider the number
b = 9567891354901259
We add the digits of b.
9+5+6+7+8+9+1+3+5+4+9+0+1+2+5+9 = 83
We can apply the theorem again to check the
divisibility of 3.
8+3=11, 11 is not divisible
We can improve the theorem in the following
way:
Let b be an integer.
3 | b if and only if the sum of the digits of b
different fro m 0, 3, 6, 9 is divisible by 3.
Theorem: (Criterion of Divisibility by 2)

Let b be an integer.

2 | b if and onlyf if the last digit of b is 0, 2, 4,

6, or 8
Determine whether 2 | b, where b is

6743132157654121246513252064632146436
6446546431564654356546464788899878

Divisible by
2
DIVISIBILIT
Y for 4, 5, 6, 7
and 8
NUMBERT THEORY
Theorem: (criterion of Divisibility by 4)

Let b be an integer
4 | b if an only if the number formed by last
two digits of b is divisible by 4.

Naturals of two digits divisible by 4:

12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32, 40, 44, 48, 52, 56
Theorem: (criterion of Divisibility by 4)

Let b be an integer
4 | b if an only if the number formed by last
two digits of b is divisible by 4.

Naturals of two digits divisible by 4:

12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32, 40, 44, 48, 52, 56
Example: Check whether 4 | b, where

65719346652124321316576125756

We look at the last two digits: 56

56 is divisible by 4 because 56/4 =
14
Theorem: (Criterion of Divisibility by 5)

Let b be an integer.
5 | b if and only if the last digits of b is 0 or 5.
Example: Check whether 5 | b, where
b = 2971356431246313165410

The last digit of b is 0

Theorem: (Criterion of Divisibility by 6)

Let b be an integer.
6 | b if and only if 2 | b and 3 | b.

b is divisible by both 2 and

3.
Example: Check whether 6 | b, where

b = 28844548423436046
We first check 2 | b. We only need to check the
last digit. The last digit is 6.
We now check that 3 | b. We add the digits of b =
28844548423436046 distinct from 0, 3, 6, and 9
2+8+8+4+4+5+4+8+4+2+4+4=57

Add again the digits of 57=12

Then 3 | b.

28844548423436046
Theorem: (Criterion of Divisibility by 7)

Let b be an integer.
7 | b if and only if the number x-2y is
divisible by 7 where

y is the last digit of b and

x is obtained from b by deleting its last digit
Example: Check whether 7 | b, where b =
2780190
Number y x x-2y

2780190 0 278019 278019

278019 9 27801 27783

27783 3 2778 2772

2772 2 277 273

273 3 27 21
Theorem: (Criterion of Divisibility by 8)
Let b be an integer.
8 | b if and only if the number by last three
digits of b is divisible by 8.
Example: Check whether 8 | b, where 8 | b,
where b = 3978469376
We look at the three digits of b : 376
376/2=188 188/2=94 94/2=47
Automaton of
Divisibility by
3
NUMBERT THEORY
We can check for divisibility graphically using
an automaton.
There are several components of this
“automaton”

States: the set {0, 1, 2}

Alphabet: the set {+1, x10}
Starting State: 0
Accepting States: 0
Transition Function: Directed Arrows
To use this automation, we represent any
natural as an ordered sequence +1 and x10

Example: Write the number 321 as a sequence of +1 and x10

We start at the first digit of the number 321.

+1 +1 +1
0 1 2 3
x10 +1 +1
3 30 31 32
x10 +1
32 320 321 +1+1+1x10+1+1x10+1
To use this automation, we represent any
natural as an ordered sequence +1 and x10

Example: Write the number 321 as a sequence of +1 and x10

We start at the first digit of the number 321.

+1 +1 +1
0 1 2 3
x10 +1 +1
3 30 31 32
x10 +1
32 320 321 +1+1+1x10+1+1x10+1
+1+1+1x10+1+1x10
+1
The node where the
paths ends is the
remainder of the
number.
Example: Determine the remainder of 124 when divided by 3
We express 124 as a sequence of +1 and x10
The sequence is: +1, x10 +1, +1, x10, +1, +1, +1, +1

The remainder of 124 divided

by 3 is 1.
Automation of
Divisibility by
Natural
Number
NUMBERT THEORY
Suppose you want to construct an automaton
of divisibility by 4, 5, 6, etc.

There is algorithm that you can follow.

Step 1: Draw n distinct nodes and label them
0, 1, 2, …, (n-1).

Step 2: draw a directed edge (arrow) I → (i+1)

₼

for i { 0, 1, 2, …, (n-2)} and (n-1) → 0.

Step 3: Label the edges in step 2 with “+1”.

Step 4: Draw a directed edge (arrow) i → (10
i) mod n for i {0, 1, 2, …, (n-1)}

₼
Step 5: Label the edges in step 4 with “x10”.
Example: Construct an automaton of divisibility by 4
Step1: Draw n=4 distinct notes and label them 0, 1, 2, 3.

3 1

2
Example: Construct an automaton of divisibility by 4
Step 2: the directed edges are 0 → 1, 1 → 2, 2 → 3, 3 → 0

3 1

2
Example: Construct an automaton of divisibility by 4
Step 3: Label the edges in step 2 with “+1”.

0
+1 +1

3 1

+1 2 +1
Example: Construct an automaton of divisibility by 4
Step 4: Draw a directed edge (arrow) i → (10 i) mod n for i
{0, 1, 2, …, (n-1)}

₼
In this case n = 4, so i → (10 i) mod 4 For i {0, 1, 2, 3}

We get these edges

0 → 0 mod 4, for i=0
1 → 10 mod 4, for i=1
2 → 20 mod 4, for i=2
3 → 30 mod 4, for i=3
Example: Construct an automaton of divisibility by 4
We get these edges
0 → 0 mod 4, 0
1 → 10 mod 4, 2
2 → 20 mod 4, 0
3 → 30 mod 4, 2
We get these edges
0→0
1→2
2→0
3→2
Example: Construct an automaton of divisibility by 4
We get these edges
0 → 0, 1 → 2 , 2 → 0, 3 → 2

0
+1 +1

3 1

+1 2
+1
Example: Construct an automaton of divisibility by 4
Step 5: Label the edges in the step 4 with “x10”.

x10

0
+1 +1
x10

3 1
x10 x10

+1 2
+1
Example: Determine whether 4 | 12 using the Automation of
Divisibility of 4.

We express 12 as a sequence or +1 and x10

The sequence is +1, x10, +1, +1

The sequence is +1, x10, +1, +1

x10

0
+1 +1
x10

3 1
x10 x10

+1 2
+1
Fundamental
Theorem of
Arithmetic
NUMBERT THEORY
Given any integer n > 1, there exist a positive integer k.,
distinct prime numbers p1, p2, p3, …,pk, and positive integers
e1, e2, e3, … , ek such that

n = p1e1●p2e2 ●p3e3…..pkek
and any other expresion for n as a product of prime numbers is
identical to this except, perhaps, for the order in whcich the
factors are written.