SUBJECT: PHYSICS

LABORATORY

SUBJECT CODE: PHS 383

Reg No:19U10781

Name: KAPU VEERA VENKATA SAI SHANMUKA MANOJ

Roll No: 19ME8170
 Experiment 1
Date of class : 19/05/2021
Aim of the experiment :
❑To determine the Hall voltage developed across the sample material.
❑To calculate the Hall coefficient and the carrier concentration of the sample
material

Theory :

If a current carrying conductor is placed in a perpendicular magnetic field, a

potential difference will be generated in the conductor which is perpendicular
to both magnetic field and current. This phenomenon is called the Hall Effect.
The Hall effect is an important tool in solid state physics to characterize
the materials, especially
semiconductors. It directly determines both the sign and density of
charge carriers in a given sample

Consider a rectangular conductor of thickness t kept in the XY plane. An

electric field is applied in X-direction using Constant Current Generator
(CCG), so that current I flow through the sample. If w is the width of
the sample and t is the thickness. There for current density is given by

𝑱𝒙=I/𝒘∗𝒕. (1)

If the magnetic field is applied along negative z-axis, the

Lorentz force moves the charge carriers (say electrons)
toward the y-direction. This results in accumulation of charge
carriers at the top edge of the sample. This set up a transverse
A current is made to flow through the sample material and the voltage difference between its top
and bottom is measured using a volt-meter. When the applied magnetic field B=0,the voltage
difference will be zero

We know that a current flows in response to an applied electric field with its direction as
conventional and it is either due to the flow of holes in the direction of current or the movement of
electrons backward. In both cases, under the application of magnetic field the magnetic Lorentz
force causes the carriers to curve upwards. Since the charges cannot escape from the material, a
vertical charge imbalance builds up. This charge imbalance produces an electric field which
counteracts with the magnetic force and a steady state is established. The vertical electric field can
be measured as transverse voltage difference using a voltmeter.

In steady state condition, the magnetic force is balanced by the electric force. Mathematically

we can express it as,

eE = evB (2)
The current 'I' can be expressed as,

I=neAv
Where 'n' is the number density of electrons in the conductor of length
l ,breadth 'w' and thickness 't'.

Working Principle:
 • Software Used for virtual Lab :
http://mpv-au.vlabs.ac.in/modernphysics/Hall_Effect_Experiment/experiment.html

Apparatus in virtual lab :

1. Two solenoids,
2. Constant current supply,
3. Four probe,
4. Digital gauss meter and Gauss probe,
5. Hall effect apparatus (which consist of
Constant Current Generator (CCG),
digital millivoltmeter and Hall probe).
 Procedure to measure the magnetic field
generated in the solenoid :
• ➢ First we shall Select Hall Effect Setup from the Select the procedure
combo box
• ➢ Then Click Insert Hall Probe button and placing the probe in between the
solenoid by clicking the wooden stand in the simulator.
• ➢ Set "current slider" value to minimum.
• ➢ Select the material from “Select Material” combo-box.
• ➢ Selecting the Thickness of the material using the slider Thickness.
• ➢ Vary the Hall current using the slider Hall current.
• ➢ Noting down the corresponding Hall voltage by clicking “show voltage”
button.
• ➢ We shall repeat the same with other value of magnetic field.
Procedure to get the data for graphical analysis of
Hall effect :

➢ First we shall Select Hall Effect Setup from the Select the procedure combo box
➢ Then Click Insert Hall Probe button and placing the probe in between the
solenoid by clicking the wooden stand in the simulator.
➢ Set "current slider" value to minimum.
➢ Select the material from “Select Material” combo-box.
➢ Selecting the Thickness of the material using the slider Thickness.
➢ Vary the Hall current using the slider Hall current.
➢ Noting down the corresponding Hall voltage by clicking “show voltage”
button.
➢ We shall repeat the same with other value of magnetic field.
Experimental data:
Table 1: Data for Calibration Curve
Trail No Current Magnetic field
through generated
solonoid(In ( In Tesla T)
amperes)

1 1.0 0.1482
2 1.5 0.2223
3 2 0.2964

4 2.5 0.3706
5 3 0.4447
6 3.5 0.5188
7 4 0.5929
8 4.5 0.6667
9 5 0.7441
Table 2: Data for Graphical analysis of
Hall Effect
Table 3: Direct calculation of Hall
Coefficient
Graphical Representation of Hall
Experiment Data
Calculations And Results

• From the data tables we can conclude: The hall Coefficient 𝑹𝑯 =

0.39𝑚3/C
𝑹𝑯 = 0.39𝑚3/C = 1/ne
• » » » ne =1/0.39
• » » » n = 1/0.39*e = 1/(0.39 x 1.6 x𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗)
= 1.60256 *𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟗 carriers per cubic meter

• The carrier concentration in 0.5mm Alluminium probe is 1.60256

*𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟗 carriers per metre cube
 Interpretation:
Hall Coefficient can be determined using RH=Vt/IB.
▪ The Hall effect is very useful as a means to measure either the carrier
density or the magnetic field.
▪ Hall effect also enables to differentiate between positive charges
moving in one direction and negative charges moving in the opposite.
▪ We observed a straight line in the graphs of Magnetic field (vs) input
current, and Hall voltage (vs) Hall current , which shows the linear
relationship.
▪ This point has important meaning as hall effect can be effectively used
to determine current or magnetic field when the other is known
 Precautions:
• Hall voltage should be measured very carefully and accurately
▪ Distance between pole pieces of Electromagnet should not be changed during the whole
experiment.
▪ Current passing through semiconductor (here Copper) slab should be strictly within
permissible limits.
▪ The magnet power supply can furnish large currents at dangerous voltage levels; do not
touch exposed magnet coil contacts.
▪ AC leads from Variac to oven can be dangerous; they should not be exposed.
▪ Never suddenly interrupt or apply power to a large magnet. Large inductive voltage surges
may damage the insulation. Start with controls set for zero current and gradually increase
current. When turning off, smoothly decrease current to zero and then turn off
▪ Do not leave the magnet current at a high setting for any length of time beyond the
minimum needed for data acquisition - it affects the monitor.
Experiment 2
Date of class: 28.05.2021
• Experiment Title: Efficiency of a solar cell

• Aim of the experiment:

• The objective of this experiment is to explore solar cells as renewable
energy sources
• Test their efficiency in converting solar radiation to electrical power.
Apparatus used in the virtual Experiment:
• DC supply
• Resistance
• Solar cell
• Digital Multimeter (DMM)/Voltmeter
• Desk lamp with variable light intensity.
Theory & Working Principle:

 Solar Power The sun produces 3.9 × 1026 watts of energy every
second.
Of that amount, 1,386 watts fall on a square meter of Earth’s
atmosphere and even less reaches Earth’s surface. This energy can be
used to generate electricity without producing pollution or dangerous
wastes. Solar cells are basically solid-state devices. It is basically a p-n
junction, which converts sunlight (solar energy) into electrical energy
through a three-step process: 1. Generation of carrier pairs (electron
hole pairs) 2. Separation of electrons and holes 3. Collection of
separated carriers
• 𝐼𝑝ℎ = 𝑞𝐴𝐺 (𝐿ℎ + 𝐿𝑒)
• 𝐼𝑝ℎ = Photo current, 𝑞 = electron charge, 𝐴 = junction area, 𝐺 = generation
rate, 𝐿ℎ = 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛,𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿𝑒 = 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛
• 𝐼 = 𝑞𝐴 (𝐿ℎ/𝜏ℎ x 𝑃𝑛𝑜 + 𝐿𝑒/𝜏𝑒 x 𝑛𝑃𝑂) x (eqv/KbT− 1) − 𝑞𝐴𝐺 (𝐿ℎ + 𝐿𝑒)
• 𝐼𝑠𝑐 = 𝐼𝑝ℎ = −𝑞𝐴𝐺 (𝐿ℎ + 𝐿𝑒)
• 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜𝑐 = 𝐾B 𝑇/𝑞 𝑙𝑛 [ (𝐿ℎ + 𝐿𝑒)/ (𝐿h/ 𝜏𝑒 x 𝑝𝑁𝑂 + 𝐿h/𝜏𝑒 x 𝑛𝑃𝑂) 𝐺 + 1]
• 𝑉𝑜𝑐 = 𝐾B 𝑇/𝑞 𝑙𝑛 [𝐼ph/𝐼s + 1]
• 𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉 = 𝑉𝐼𝑠 x (eqv/KbT− 1) – 𝑉𝐼ph
 Working Formula:
• Maximum power, 𝑃max = 𝐼max x Vmax
• Fill factor, 𝐹. 𝐹 = 𝑃max / (𝐼 sc x 𝑉oc) = (𝐼max x Vmax)/ (𝐼 sc x 𝑉oc)
Solar cell efficiency
Solar cell efficiency is the ratio of the electrical output of a solar cell to
the incident energy in the form of sunlight. The energy conversion
efficiency (η) of a solar cell is the percentage of the solar energy to
which the cell is exposed that is converted into electrical energy. This is
calculated by dividing a cell's power output (in watts) at its maximum
power point (P) by the input light (E, in W/m2) and the surface area of
the solar cell (A in m2).

𝑃𝐶𝐸 = (𝐹. 𝐹 ⨯ 𝐼 sc x 𝑉oc /𝑃light)

• SOFTWARE USED FOR VIRTUAL LAB:
https://www.electrical4u.com/solar-cell/

Experimental Data:
• Least count of voltmeter: 0.2 V
• Least count of milli- ammeter: 2 mA = 2 x 10-3 A
• Short circuit voltage (Vsc): 5.6 V
• Open circuit current (Ioc): 18 mA = 18 x 10-3 A
Graph using MATLAB:
 Results:
Ideal power = Vsc x Ioc =5.6 x 18 x 10-3 = 100.8 x 10-3 W
Maximum power = Vm x Im
From graph, Vm = 4.8 V and Im = 12 x 10-3 A
Therefore,
Maximum power = 4.8 x 12 x 10-3 = 57.6 x 10-3 W
Therefore,
Fill factor (F.F) = 𝑃max / (𝐼 sc x 𝑉oc) = (𝐼max x Vmax)/ (𝐼 sc x 𝑉oc)
= 57.6 x 10-3/ 100.8 x 10-3
=0.5714
Efficiency = Fill Factor (F.F) x 100%
= 0.5714 x 100 %
= 57.14%
• Interpretation/ Discussion: The efficiency of solar cell is 57.14%.
• Precautions:
• The solar cell should be exposed to sun light before using it in the
experiment.
• Light from the lamp should fall normally on the cell.
• A resistance in the cell circuit should be introduced so that the current
does not exceed the safe operating limit.
• Connections Should be tight.
Experiment 3:
Date of class: 28.05.2021
Experiment Title: MEASUREMENT OF ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF
A SEMICONDUCTOR
Aim of the experiment:
• Study the temperature dependence of conductivity of a semiconductor
• Determine the energy band gap of experimental material.
Apparatus used in the virtual Experiment:
• Sample (semiconductor in rectangular pellet form),
• Oven with Eurytherm 2404 temperature controller,
• Sample chamber with sample holder,
• Keithley 6514 electrometer,
• Vacuum pump
• Theory & Working Principle: According to Ohm’s law if the
temperature and other physical conditions remain unchanged, the
voltage across the conductor is proportional to the current flowing
through it and given by 𝑉 = 𝑅𝐼 and resistance R can be expressed by
the relation 𝑅 = 𝜌 x 𝑙/𝐴 or 𝜌 = 𝑅x 𝐴/𝑙 or 𝜎 = 𝑙/(𝑅 x 𝐴)
• Where, A is the area of cross section and l is the effected length of the
sample
• which is taken as the distance between the voltage leads.
• The temperature dependent conductivity of a semiconductor is given by,
• 𝜎 (𝑇) = 𝜎o 𝑒𝑥p (− 𝐸𝑔/2𝑘𝐵𝑇)
• Where Eg is the energy band gap, kB is the Boltzmann constant and T is the
temperature in absolute scale. The resistivity increases exponentially with increase
in temperature.
• 𝑙𝑛 [𝜎(𝑇)] = 𝑙𝑛[𝜎o] – (𝐸𝑔/2𝑘𝐵𝑇) or, 𝑙og [𝜎(𝑇)] = 𝑙og[𝜎o] – [(1/2.303) x (𝐸𝑔/2𝑘𝐵𝑇)]
• or, 𝑙og [𝜎(𝑇)] = 𝑙og[𝜎o] – [(1/2.303 x 1000) x (𝐸𝑔/2𝑘𝐵) x 1000/T]
• A plot 𝑙𝑜𝑔 [𝜎(𝑇)] vs. 1000 𝑇 represents a straight line and the slope of the straight
line is
Working Formula:

• 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = −(1/2.303×103) x (𝐸𝑔/2𝑘𝐵)

• 𝐸𝑔 = −2.303 × 103 x 2𝑘𝐵 × 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 in eV
• where 𝑘𝐵 = 8.617 × 10-5 𝑒𝑉𝐾-1 Boltzmann constant)
• Putting the value of the slope, value of Eg can be calculated.
Observation table:
Given data: l/A = 5.527 x 103 m-1
Graph with MATLAB
Calculation and Results

• By using the polyfit function , slope of the curve is found out.

• The slope of the curve is – 1.238398
• 𝐸𝑔 = (−2.303 × 103 x 2𝑘𝐵 × 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒) in eV

• Therefore, Eg = (-2.303 x 103 x 2 x 8.617 x 10-5) x (- 1.238398)

= 0.491519 eV
= 0.50 eV
Interpretation/ Discussion:

• The temperature dependence of the resistivity of semiconductor is as

shown in the graph. The conductivity increases with temperature
(decreases with 1000/T) that is resistivity decreases exponentially with
the increase in T. That is as at low temperatures resistivity is more and at
high temperatures the resistivity is less.

• The energy band gap for the given semiconductor is = 0.5 eV.
 Precaution:
1.The surface of the semiconductor should be flat.

2. All the four probes should be collinear.

3. The adjustment of 4-point probes should be done gently, as the semiconductor

chip is brittle.

4. The voltage should be measured using inner probes only using a high
impedance millivoltmeter.

5. Temperature of the oven should not exceed the limits set by

manufacturer of the probes and chip.