ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE and TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE of ELECTRICAL and MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT of MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

LECTURE NOTE of
ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND DRIVES
(ECEG - 3282 )
 Transformer

2
 Introduction
 Transformer is a static electrical device that changes and transfers AC electric
power at one voltage level to AC electric power at another voltage level
through the action of a magnetic field.
 A transformer is a passive electromagnetic device that transfers energy from
one circuit to another circuit by means of inductive coupling.
 It consists of two or more coils of wire
wrapped around a common ferromagnetic core.
 These coils are (usually) not electrically
connected. The only connection between the
coils is the common magnetic flux present
within the core.

3
 Classification of Transformers
In terms of the number of phases
 Single phase transformer and
 Three phase transformer

4
 Classification of Transformers
In terms of their function
1. Power transformer
2. Distribution transformer
3. Measuring transformers
A. Voltage transformer
B. Current transformer
4. Autotransformer- Tapped autotransformer

5
 Construction of Transformer
Consists of Construction of Three main Parts:
 Core Construction
 Winding Construction
 Cooling Aspects

Core Construction
 Transformer core for the power frequency application is made of
highly permeable material.
 core construction can be separated into core type and shell type.

6
 Core Construction
a) Shell type transformer
In this type, the laminated insulated sheet iron
core surrounds the copper windings.

a) shell-type transformer

b) Core type transformer

In this type, the copper windings surround the
laminated sheet iron core.

b) Core-type transformer
7
 The Magnetic Circuit
 A magnetic circuit or core of a transformer is designed to provide a path for
the magnetic field, which is necessary for induction of voltages between
windings.

 A path of low reluctance (i.e., resistance to magnetic lines of force),

consisting of thin silicon, sheet steel laminations, is used for this purpose

 In addition to providing a low reluctance path for the magnetic field, the core
is designed to prevent circulating electric currents within the steel itself.
Circulating currents, called eddy currents, cause heating and energy loss

8
 Winding Construction
 In a two winding transformer, two windings would be present. The one
which is connected to a voltage source and creates the flux is called as a
primary winding.
 The second winding where the voltage is induced by induction is called a
secondary.
 If the secondary voltage is less than that of the primary the transformer
is called a step down transformer.
 If the secondary voltage is more than the primary then it is a step up
transformer.
 The winding with more number of turns is called High Voltage (HV)
winding and the other is called Low Voltage (LV) winding. 9
 Cooling of Transformers

 The cooling of a transformer depends upon the application.

 Transformers intended for indoor use are primarily of the dry type but
can also be liquid immersed. For outdoor use, transformers are usually
liquid immersed

 Simple air cooling of the transformers is adopted in dry type

transformers and oil cooling in large transformers.

 As the rating of a transformer increases better cooling techniques are

needed.
10
 The essential elements of a transformer are
a)Two coils having mutual inductance wound on a laminated steel
core.
 Many transformers have separate coils and contain many turns of wire .
 The winding receiving electrical energy from the source is called the primary
winding.
 The winding which receives energy from the primary winding, via the
magnetic field, is called the “secondary” winding.
 Either the high- or low-voltage winding can be the primary or the secondary.
b)The two coils are insulated from each other and magnetic core.
 A magnetic circuit or core of a transformer is designed to provide a path for the
magnetic field, which is necessary for induction of voltages between windings.
 Special paper and wood are used for insulation and internal structural support
c)A suitable container for the assembled core and windings.
d)A suitable medium for insulating the core and its windings from
the container.
e)Suitable bushings for insulating and bringing out the terminals of
windings from the container 11
 Working Principle of Transformer
 When one coil is connected to a source of a.c voltage an alternating flux setup
in the laminated core, most of which is linked with the other coil in which it
produces mutually induced e.m.f.

 If the circuit of the second coil is closed a current flows in it and so electrical
energy is transferred entirely magnetically from the first coil to the second coil.

12
 Cont’d
 Hence magnetic flux linked with the secondary coil changes which induces
e.m.f. in the secondary.

13
 Ideal Transformer Action
14

 d m   d m 
Lentz's Law e1   N1   e2  N2  
 dt   dt 

Induced voltage has

opposite polarity from
source

Principle: Stationary coils, time varying flux due to ac current flow. Flux produced by one coil must link
to other coil to induce voltage
 E.m.f Equation of Transformer
15

 The
  induced e.m.f in a transformer is proportional to the product of number of turns
N and the rate of change of flux.

The magnetic flux() increases from zero to its maximum value m in 1/4th of a
cycle.

Average rate of change of flux wb/s or volt

Now rate of change of flux per turn means induced e.m.f in volts.

Average e.m.f /turn = volts

If flux  varies sinusoidal, then r.m.s value of induced e.m.f is obtained by

multiplying the average value with the form factor (1.11).

 E.m.f Equation of Transformer
16

 r.m.s value of e.m.f/turn = 1.11*average value

= 1.11* 4f m
= 4.44f m volt

 Now r.m.s value of the induced e.m.f in the whole of primary winding(E 1).
E1 = induced e.m.f/turn*No of primary winding.
= 4.44f N1 m = 4.44f N1BmA
 Similarly r.m.s value of e.m.f induced in secondary is
E2 = 4.44f N2 m = 4.44f N2BmA
 Ideal Transformer Action
17

Secondary
For sinusoidal sources Primary

Ep  4.44  N p  f   max

Es  4.44  N s  f   max

Dividing the above equations gives:

Ep 4.44  N p  f   max Ep Np Voltage relationship for Ideal
 
Es 4.44  N s  f   max Es Ns transformer

Where: E’p = voltage induced in the primary (V) Voltage ratio equals the
turns ratio
E’s = voltage induced in the secondary (V)
Np = turns in the primary coil
Ns = turns in the secondary coil
 Assumptions for Ideal Transformer Operation
18

1) All flux produced in the primary coil links to the secondary coil
2) no core losses due to hysteresis or eddy currents
3) no power losses
4) permeability is infinite (no saturation no magnetizing f)
5) windings have zero resistance
6) no current required to magnetize the iron core

For ideal transformer

Ep Np Vp
a   Where: a = turns ratio
Es Ns Vs Vp = nameplate rated primary voltage (higher V)
Vs = nameplate rated secondary voltage (lower V)
E’p = induced primary voltage
E’s = induced secondary voltage
 Ideal Transformer Equations
19

Voltage Ratio
Ep Np The turns ratio is a scalar.
a 
Es Ns Introduces no phase shift
E p  a  Es

Apparent Power balance

E p  I p  E s  Is No power losses in idea
Sp  Ss transformer

Current Ratio
Current ratio is the inverse of the
Ip 1 1 voltage ratio
 I p     Is
Is a a
 Ideal Transformer Equations-Impedance Transforms
20

Impedances Reflected Through Ideal Transformers

Load impedance as seen

from primary side of
transformer Zin Zload
By Ohm’s Law
Ep Es
Zin  Z load 
Ip Is
Ep
Es  Is  a  I p
Write Es and Is in terms of primary values a Load impedance is
increased when viewed from
 Ep  primary side

 
Es  a    E p  1   Ep  1 
    
a  Ip 
 a 
   I  a 2 
Is  a  Ip   p    1 
Z load  Zin   2   Z load  a 2  Zin
a 
 Ideal Transformer Equations-Impedance Transforms
21

Derive equation when impedances are connected to the primary side and viewed from the secondary side.

Es Write primary values in terms of secondary

Zin 
Is and substitute in the Zload equation.

Is
Zin E p  a  Es Ip 
Zload a
Ep a  Es a   Es 
Z load     a  Es 
I 
  a 2

 I 

Ep Ip Is  s   s 
Z load  a
Ip
Generally : Moving impedance from secondary to primary Z load
Z load  Zin  a 2
  Zin
multiply by a2. Moving from primary to secondary, divide by a2
a 2.
Zp
Z p  Zs  a 2
 Zs
a2
 Ideal Transformer Calculations
22

Example 8-1: A 25 kVA, 7200 - 240/120 center-tap single phase transformer operates at rated voltage.
It supplies a single phase load that has an equivalent impedance of 7.2 +36.9o ohms. Assume Ideal
operation and find:
a.) turns ratio
b.) secondary current
c.) primary current
d.) load Z as seen from primary side
e.) PT, ST, QT, and Fp

120 V
7200 V
240 V
120 V
 Example Solution (1)
23

a) For ideal transformers

 𝑁 𝑃 𝑉𝑃   Ans
=
  ==30
𝑁𝑆 𝑉 𝑆
b) Secondary current Use Ohm’s law to find Is
 
  

°
  240 ∠ 0 𝑉    𝐼´ =33.33∠ − 36.9° 𝐴 Ans
𝐼´𝑆= 𝑆
7.2 ∠ 36.9° Ω  
 Example Solution (2)
24

c) Find the primary current

 𝐼´ = 1 𝐼´   1
𝑃
𝑎 𝑆
( )
𝐼´𝑃 =
30
( 33.33 ∠ −36.9° 𝐴   )
𝐼 ´𝑃 =1.11 ∠ −36.9° 𝐴 Ans

d) Find the input impedance as seen from the primary side

Z in  a 2 Z load

Z in   30   7.236.9 
2
Z in  648036.9 Ans
 Example Solution (3)
25

e) Find the power and the power factor of the load

Using secondary side quantities Using primary side quantities

Ans
Ans

Power equal on both sides of ideal transformer

 Example Solution (4)
26

Now find the power factor and the active and reactive powers

Ans Ans

Ans
 Ideal Transformer Calculations
27

Example 8-2: 300 kVA 2400-120, 60 Hz single phase transformer operates at 2300 volts
on the primary side. It supplies 115 kVA to a load that has a power factor of 0.723
lagging. Assume idea operation and find:

a.) secondary voltage at operating voltage

b.) secondary current
c.) impedance of the load as seen on the secondary side
d.) impedance of the load as seen on the primary side
 Example Solution (1)
28

a) Find secondary voltage at operating voltage

Use rated values to find turns ratio

Ans

b) Find secondary current at operating voltage

Power is equal on both sides of ideal

Ans
transformers
 Example Solution (2)
29

c) Find load impedance seen on secondary side

Next find impedance angle

Angle between V and I.

Change sign for impedance angle

Ans
 Example Solution (3)
30

d) Find load impedance seen on primary side of transformer

Reflecting impedance from secondary to primary-multiply by a2.

Ans
 Real Transformers
 

 Have losses
 Have leakage flux
 Have finite permeability of magnetic core

Real power losses

 Resistance in windings (R)
 Core losses due to eddy currents and hysteresis

31
 Non-Ideal Operation-No-load
32

Practical transformers draw current with no load connected to secondary winding. Current caused by two
non-ideal conditions: power losses and core magnetization

Active power losses Hysteresis losses - power losses due to repeated change in
magnetic polarity. It takes more mmf (NI) to demagnetize core in
one direction than the other.

Eddy currents - ac currents induced in iron core due to changing

magnetic field

Control hysteresis losses - use alloy steels designed for magnetic

Active power loss Control circuits
Control eddy current losses - laminate core, insulate laminates
Lesson 8_et332b.pptx
 Non-Ideal Operation-No-load
33

A finite amount of current is necessary to drive mutual flux between coils. Permeability is finite so
reluctance is finite Some NI = F needed.

l NI
R  m  fm = mutual flux R = reluctance
A R

N2 so core has inductance with associated inductive

In terms of inductance L
R reactance

Define above as the magnetizing inductance with associated magnetizing reactance X m

Lesson 8_et332b.pptx
 Theory of Operation of Single-Phase Real Transformers

 P   M   LP
 S   M   LS

fp: total average primary flux

fM : flux linking both primary and secondary windings
fLP: primary leakage flux
fS: total average secondary flux
f : secondary leakage flux
34
 The voltage ratio across a Real Transformer
 
From the Faraday’s law, the primary coil’s voltage is:

 the secondary coil’s voltage is:

 the primary and secondary voltages due to the mutual flux are:

 Combining the last two equations :

35
 Magnetization Current
 When an ac power source is connected to a transformer, a current flows in its
primary circuit, even when the secondary circuit is open circuited. This current
is the current required to produce flux in the ferromagnetic core and is called
excitation current.
It consists of two components:
1. The magnetization current Im, which is the current required to produce the
flux in the transformer core.
2. The core-loss current Ih+e, which is the current required to make up for
hysteresis and eddy current losses

36
37
 Impedance Transformation through a Transformer
• Consider
   a load impedance ZL is connected in the secondary winding. The RMS values of
current and voltage in the secondary winding are related to the impedance by

Substituting for V2 and I2 from

or
or

 Rearranging this equation, and substituting , the impedance seen by the source, is given by:

38
 Cont’d
• i.e.,
   When a load impedance ZL is connected across the secondary winding terminals, the AC
source connected on the input side sees the load impedance magnified by the factor 2.We say
that the load impedance is reflected or referred to the primary side by the square of the turns
ratio .

Fig. Load impedance as seen by the source

39
 Cont’d
 This circuit can be simplified as follows

Fig. Simplified circuit

40
 Cont’d
 In a similar manner, it can be shown that if an impedance is connected on the source side of
the circuit (as shown below), the load sees it changed by a factor of (1/ a2).

Fig. Source impedance as seen by the load

41
 Cont’d
 If we look at this circuit from the load side (i.e., as seen by the load), the voltage of the
source and the impedance appear changed as shown below

Fig Simplified circuit

42
 Impedance Matching
 A very important application of transformers is as an impedance matching device using the
concept of “reflected load”.
 Recall that the maximum power transfer theorem states that a power source delivers
maximum power to the load when the load resistance is equal to the internal resistance of the
source. This can be accomplished by using a transformer to match the two resistances

Fig Transformer application for impedance matching

43
 Cont’d
 The maximum power transfer from an active device like an amplifier to an external device
like a speaker will occur when the impedance of the external device matches that of the
source.
 Transformers are used for this purpose. Improper impedance matching can lead to
excessive power use, distortion, and noise problems.
 Thus, by choosing the appropriate turns ratio for the transformer in equation (a), the
effective load resistance R’L can be made equal to the internal resistance of the source, no
matter what value the actual load resistance RL takes. This process is called impedance
matching. A practical example of impedance matching in given below.

44
 Cont’d
 For example, if the internal resistance of the source is 75Ω, and the resistance of the load
is 300Ω, a transformer with turns ratio of 1:2 can be used for impedance matching as
shown below.

Fig Impedance matching

45
 Example
•   equivalent circuit of an ideal transformer with an impedance connected in series
The
with the secondary. The tums ratio
a) Draw an equivalent circuit with the series impedance referred to the primary side.
b) For a primary voltage of 120 V rms and a short connected across the terminals
A-B, calculate the primary current and the current flowing in the short.

46
 Example
•  
Solution
a. The new equivalent is shown in Fig. The secondary impedance is referred to the
primary by the turns ratio squared. Thus

47
 Solution
•  a short at terminals A-B will appear as a short at the primary of the ideal
b.
transformer in the above Fig. since the zero voltage of the short is reflected by the
turns ratio to the primary. Hence the primary current will be given by

corresponding to a magnitude of 1.16 A rms. From the following Eq.

the secondary current will equal times that of the current in the primary.
Thus the current in the short will have a magnitude of 5(1.16) =5.8 A rms.

48
 The Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
The losses that occur in transformers have to be accounted for in any accurate
model of transformer behavior.
1. Copper (I2R) losses. Copper losses are the resistive heating losses in the primary
and secondary windings of the transformer. They are proportional to the square of
the current in the windings.
2. Eddy current losses. Eddy current losses are resistive heating losses in the core
of the transformer. They are proportional to the square of the voltage applied to
the transformer.
3. Hysteresis losses. Hysteresis losses are associated with the rearrangement of the
magnetic domains in the core during each half-cycle. They are a complex,
nonlinear function of the voltage applied to the transformer.
4. Leakage flux. The fluxes which escape the core and pass through only one of the
transformer windings are leakage fluxes. These escaped fluxes produce a self-
inductance in the primary and secondary coils, and the effects of this inductance
must be accounted for. 49
 The exact equivalent circuit of a real transformer
• Cooper
   losses are modeled by the resistors Rp and Rs
 Leakage flux in a primary winding produces the voltage:

 Since much of the leakage flux pass through air, and air has a constant reluctance that is
much higher than the core reluctance, the primary coil’s leakage flux is

Where is permeance of the flux path. Therefore,

50
 The exact equivalent circuit of a real transformer

• Recognizing
  that the self-inductance of the primary coil is :

 The induced voltages are:

Primary coil:
Secondary coil:
 The leakage flux can be modeled by primary and secondary inductors.
 The magnetization current can be modeled by a reactance XM connected across
the primary voltage source.
 The core-loss current can be modeled by a resistance RC connected across the
primary voltage source.
 Both currents are nonlinear; therefore, XM and RC are just approximations
51
 Real Transformers Equivalent Circuit

 Cooper losses are modeled by the resistors and

 The leakage flux can be modeled by primary and secondary inductors and
 The magnetization current can be modeled by a reactance LM1 connected across the
primary voltage source.
 The core-loss current can be modeled by a resistance RC1 connected across the primary
voltage source.
52
 The exact equivalent circuit of a real transformer
 Therefore, the equivalent circuit is usually referred to the primary side or the
secondary side of the transformer
:  Equivalent circuit of the transformer  Equivalent circuit of the transformer
referred to its primary side. referred to its secondary side.

53
 Approximate Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
 For many practical applications, approximate models of transformers are used.

 Referred to the primary side.  Without an excitation branch referred

to the primary side.

54
 Approximate Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
 For many practical applications, approximate models of transformers are used.
: Referred to the secondary side.
  Without an excitation branch referred
to the secondary side.

 The values of components of the transformer model can be determined

experimentally by an open-circuit test or by a short-circuit test. 55
 Efficiency of transformer
 The efficiency of transformer depends on loss.
The loss occurring in a transformer can be divided into two parts.
a) Copper loss in primary and secondary winding as (I21R1 +I22 R2 ).

 It depends upon the square of the load current.

b) Iron losses in the core due to hysteresis and eddy currents.

56
 Efficiency of transformer

• For
  a given frequency, the power losses in the core (iron losses) increase with the
voltage e1 (or e2).
 Limits are put to E1 and E2 (with a ratio of N1/N2), and these limits are the voltage
limits of the transformer.
 Similarly, winding losses(Copper loss) have to be limited, resulting in limits to
the currents I1 and I2.
 Under rated conditions, i.e. maximum current and voltage, in typical transformers
the magnetizing current I0 does not exceed 1% of the current in the transformer.
 Under maximum (rated) current, total voltage drops on the winding resistances
and leakage inductances do not exceed in typical transformers 6% of the rated
voltage.

57
 Rating of Transformer.

 As seen cooper loss of a transformer depends on the current and iron

loss on voltage.
 Hence total loss of transformer depends on volt-ampere(VA) and not
on phase angle between current and voltage i.e. it is independent on
load power factor. That is why rating of transformer is in KVA and not
in KW.
 A transformer is described by its rated apparent power.

58
 Transformer Voltage Regulation

• Because
  a real transformer has series impedance within it, the output voltage of a
transformer varies with the load even if the input voltage remains constant.
 The voltage regulation of a transformer is the change in the magnitude of the
secondary terminal voltage from no-load to full-load.

Where:- Vs = Secondary voltage

Vp= Primary voltage
 The purpose of voltage regulation is to determine the percentage of voltage drop
between no load and full load

59
Example

60
Solution

61
62
 Transformer Tests
 It is possible to experimentally determine the parameters of the approximate
equivalent circuit. An adequate approximation of these values can be obtained
with only two tests….
 Open-circuit test
 Short-circuit test
Open-circuit test
 Transformer's secondary winding is open-circuited.
 Primary winding is connected to a full-rated line voltage.
 The primary current on no load is usually less than 5% of
the full load. So copper loss is very small than the primary
loss(I2R)or full load and therefore can be neglected. Hence
the wattmeter readings give the core loss Pi of the
transformer.
 Input voltage, input current, and input power to the
transformer are measured.
64
 Determining the values of components
 Full line voltage.is applied to the primary side of the transformer. The input
voltage, current, and power to the transformer are measured.
 From this information, the power factor of the input current and the magnitude
and the angle of the excitation impedance can be determined.
To evaluate and , we determine the conductance of the core-loss resistor is:

The susceptance of the magnetizing inductor is

65
 Determining the values of components
 Since both elements are in parallel, their admittances add. Therefore, the total
excitation admittance is

The magnitude of the excitation admittance in the open-circuit test is:

 The angle of the admittance in the open-circuit test can be found from the circuit
power factor (PF)

In real transformer, the power factor is always lagging, so the angle of the current
always lags the angle of the voltage by degres. The admittance is

Therefore, it is possible to determine values of and in the open-circuit test.

66
 Short circuit test
 Transformer's secondary winding is short-circuited
 Primary winding is connected to a fairly low-voltage
source.
 The input voltage is adjusted until the current in the
short-circuited windings is equal to its rated value.
 Input voltage, input current, and input power to the
transformer are measured.
 Excitation current is negligible, since the input
voltage is very low. Thus, the voltage drop in the
excitation branch can be ignored. All the voltage
drop can be attributed to the series elements in the
circuit
67
 Determining the values of components

• Fairly
  low-voltage is applied to the primary side of a transformer.
 This voltage is adjusted until the current in the secondary winding is equals to its
rated value.
 The input voltage, current, and power to the transformer are again measured.
 Since the input voltage is very low, Excitation current is negligible. Therefore, all
the voltage drop in the transformer is due to the series elements in the circuit. The
magnitude of the series impedance referred to the primary side of the transformer
is:

 The power factor of the current is given by:

68
 Determining the values of components
Therefore:
 

 Since the serial impedance is equal to

 It is possible to determine the total series impedance referred to the primary side
of the transformer. However, there is no easy way to split the series impedance
into primary and secondary components.
 The same tests can be performed on the secondary side of the transformer. The
results will yield the equivalent circuit impedances referred to the secondary side
of the transformer.

69
Example

70
Solution

71
Solution Cont‘d

72
Solution Cont‘d

73
Solution Cont‘d

exact equivalent circuit referred to L.V. side.

74
Solution Cont‘d

75
Solution Cont‘d

76
 Three phase transformer
• The majority of the power generation/distribution systems in the world are 3-
phase systems.
• Large scale generation of electric power is usually 3-phase at generated voltages
of 13.2 kV or somewhat higher
• The transformers for such circuits can be constructed either as a 3-phase
bank of independent identical transformers or as a single transformer
wound on a single 3-legged core (lighter, cheaper, more efficient).
• Generation, transmission and distribution of electric energy is invariably done
through the use of three-phase systems because of its several advantages over
single-phase systems.
• As such, a large number of three-phase transformers are inducted in a 3-phase
energy system for stepping up or stepping – down the voltage as required.
• For 3-phase up or down transformation, three units of 1-phase transformers or
one unit of 3-phase transformer may be used 77
 Three phase transformer
 When three identical units of 1-phase transformers are used as shown in Figure a, the
arrangement is usually called a bank of three transformers or a 3-phase transformer bank.
 A single 3-phase transformer unit may employ 3–phase core-type construction Figure b or
three phase shell type construction
 A single-unit 3-phase core-type transformer uses a three-limbed core, one limb for each phase
winding as shown in Figure b
 Actually, each limb has the L.V. winding placed adjacent to the laminated steel core and then
H.V. winding is placed over the L.V. winding.
 Appropriate insulation is placed in between the core and L.V. winding and also in between the
two windings. Input

A B C

P P P
P S P S P S

I II III

a b c S S S
Output

78
Figure (a) 3-phase transformer both windings in star; b) three-pase core-type transformer
 Three-Phase Transformer Connections
Three-phase transformers may have four standard connections
a) Star-Delta ( Y-) a) Delta-Delta (-)
b) Delta-Star (-Y) b) Star-Star (Y-Y)

With all three phase angles are separated by 120

degree . The center points must tie either all “-”
or all “+” winding ends together

With all three phase angles are separated by 120

degree . The winding polarities must stack in a
complementary manner (+ or -)
79
 Cont…

Three-phase Voltage and Current

Phase Phase Line

Connection Line Voltage
Voltage Current Current

Star VP = VL ÷ √3 VL = √3 × VP IP = IL IL = IP

Delta VP = VL VL = VP IP = IL ÷ √3 IL = √3 × IP

80
Thank you!
81