REVIEW: IODINE TEST (LUGOL’S TEST)

REVIEW: BENEDICT’S TEST

REVIEW: ETHANOL EMULSION TEST
 PROTEINS

LIPIDS
ELEMENTS OF CARBOHYDRATES
ROLE OF CARBOHYDRATES

To supply
energy.
SUBHEADINGS OF ROLE
• Carbohydrates Supply Energy
• Carbohydrates Provide Fuel for the Central Nervous System
• Carbohydrates Provide Fuel for the Muscular System
• Carbohydrates Spare Proteins
• Carbohydrates Supply “Dietary Fiber”
MONOSACCHARIDES
• Made up of one sugar unit
• theonly sugars that can be absorbed and
utilized by the body.
• themost important carbohydrate in human
nutrition because it is the one that the body
fuses directly to supply its energy needs.
GLUCOSE
• Also known as dextrose or grape sugar
• the carbohydrate found in the bloodstream, and it provides an
immediate source of energy for the body’s cells and tissues. 
• found in all plants and in the sap of trees. Fruits and vegetables
are wholesome food sources of glucose. It is also present in
substances as molasses, honey and corn syrup.
FRUCTOSE
• also known as levulose or fruit sugar
• very similar to another monosaccharide, galactose. These two
simple sugars share the same chemical formula; however, the
arrangements of their chemical groups along the chemical chain
differ. 
• the sweetest of all the sugars and is found in fruits, vegetables and
the nectar of flowers, as well as in the unwholesome (to humans)
sweeteners, molasses and honey. 
GALACTOSE
• differs
from the other simple sugars, glucose and
fructose, in that it does not occur free in nature. It
is produced in the body in the digestion of
lactose, a disaccharide.
Chemical Formula for Monosaccharides

C6H12O6
SUCROSE
• Also known as table sugar
• consists of one molecule of each of two monosaccharides—
glucose and fructose.
• found in fruits and vegetables and is particularly plentiful in sugar
beets (roots) and sugarcane (a grass). Refined white and brown
sugars are close to 100% sucrose because almost everything else
(including the other kinds of sugars present, the vitamins, the
minerals and the proteins) have been removed in the refining
process
MALTOSE
• also known as malt sugar
• found in malted cereals, malted milks and sprouted
grains.
LACTOSE
• also known as milk sugar
• found only in milk
• Human milk contains about 4.8 g per 100 ml and cow’s
milk contains approximately 6.8 g per 100 ml..
• The enzyme lactase is needed to digest lactose.
POLYSACCHARIDES
• Complex carbohydrates
• Like the disaccharides, the polysaccharides cannot be directly utilized by the
body. They must first be broken down into monosaccharides, the only sugar
form the body can use.
• Polysaccharides contain up to 60,000 simple carbohydrate molecules. These
carbohydrate molecules are arranged in long chains in either a straight or in a
branched structure. 
• are not water soluble as are the mono- and disaccharides.
STARCH
• abundant in the plant world and is found in
granular form in the cells of plants. 
DEXTRIN
• aremost commonly consumed in cooked starch
foods, as they are obtained from starch by the
action of heat. Dextrins are intermediary products
of starch digestion, also, and are formed by the
action of amylases on starches.
GLYCOGEN
• the reserve carbohydrate in humans.
• very similar to amylopectin, having a high molecular weight and branched-
chain structures made up of thousands of glucose molecules.
• The main difference between glycogen and amylopectin is that glycogen has
more and shorter branches, resulting in a more compact, bushlike molecule
with greater solubility and lower viscosity
• stored primarily in the liver and muscles of animals. About two-thirds of total
body glycogen is stored in the muscles and about one-third is stored in the
liver.
CELLULOSE
• Like starch and glycogen, cellulose is composed of thousands of glucose
molecules. It comprises over 50% of the carbon in vegetation and is the
structural constituent of the cell walls of plants. Cellulose is, therefore, the
most abundant naturally-occurring organic substance. It is characterized by its
insolubility, its chemical inertness and its physical rigidity. This polysaccharide
can be digested only by herbivores such as cows, sheep, horses, etc., as these
animals have bacteria in their rumens (stomachs) whose enzyme systems break
down cellulose molecules. Humans do not have the enzyme needed to digest
cellulose, so it is passed through the digestive tract unchanged.
 LIPIDS
•a diverse group of organic compounds
including fats, oils, hormones, and certain
components of membranes that are
grouped together because they do not
interact appreciably with water.
• solublein nonpolar solvents (e.g. ether,
chloroform, acetone & benzene)
SIMPLE LIPIDS
• theesters of fatty acids with various
alcohols.
SIMPLE LIPIDS
• 1) Triglycerides( fats and oils)
 These are the esters of fatty acid with glycerol. The fats and oils that are widely distributed in both plants and animals are chemically triglycerides or
triacylglycerides.They are insoluble in water and not- polar in nature and commonly known as neutral fat.

Oils Fats
Difference between fat and oil:
1.The glycerides which exist in liquid form at 1.The triglycerides which exist in solid form
room temperature are known as oils. at room temperature are known as fats.
2.The degree of unsaturation of fatty acid 2.The degree of unsaturation of fatty acid
residue in oil is higher. residue in fat is lower.
3.Oils are the triglycerides of unsaturated 3.Fats are the triglycerides of saturated fatty
fatty acids. acids.
More about Triglycerides
• Triglycerides:
composed of 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids.

H O
H-C----O
=
C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3
O
=

H-C----O C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3
O
=C fatty acids
=

H-C----O C-CH -CH -CH -CH H-C

2 2 2 H-
2 C
H-
H 2 C
H-
2 C
H-
2 C
H
glycerol 3
GLYCEROL
• Glycerol is a colorless, odorless liquid with a sweet
taste. It is viscous at room temperature and non-toxic in
low concentrations. 
• Glycerol was discovered in 1779. It is also called glycyl
alcohol, glycerin or glycerine in some literature.
FATTY ACIDS
• a carboxylic acid consisting of a hydrocarbon chain and a terminal carboxyl group, especially any of those occurring as esters in fats and oils.

• is either saturated or unsaturated

SIMPLE LIPIDS
• 2) Waxes:
 Waxes are the ester of long chain saturated and unsaturated fatty acids with long chain alcohols.
waxes are considered as the lipid which on hydrolysis produce long chain fatty acids and long
chain alcohols.
 Waxes→hydrolysis→long chain fatty acids+ long chain alcohols
 In the case of plankton (aquatic plants) waxes is the chief storage form of metabolic fuel .
Biological waxes have a variety of applications in the pharmaceutical, cosmetics and other
industries.
COMPOUND LIPIDS
• 1) Phospholipids:
 These are complex lipids containing phosphoric acid .They also contain nitrogen base and
other substances and they are mainly deposited in the brain and nervous tissue.They are also
present in cytoplasmic membrane due to which they are involved in cellular activities. They
are classified into two groups:
 Glycerophospholipids
 Sphingophospholipids

• 2) Glycolipid:
 It is the combination of lipid and carbohydrates which lack the phosphate group. It contains C
24 fatty acid molecule such as cerebric acid, lignoceric acid. It is mainly of two types:
 Cerebrosides
 Gangliosides
DERIVED LIPIDS
• These are the lipids containing cyclopentane rings, these are the complex fat
soluble molecule with four fused rings. steroids are compounds containing a
cyclic steroid nucleus namely Cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene (CPPP). It
consists of a phenanthrene nucleus to which a cyclopentane ring is attached .
these are several steroids in the biological system. These include cholesterol,
bile acids, vitamin D, sex hormones etc. If the steroids contain one or more
hydroxyl group it is commonly known as the sterol (means alcohol).
The most common sterol found in animal
tissue is the cholesterol. 
CHOLESTEROL
• The normal blood cholesterol level is 130-250mg/dl. But cholesterol level is determined by
metabolic functions which are influenced by heredity, nutrition,endocrine functions and integrity
of vital organs like liver,kidney etc. If the cholesterol level falls below normal value the condition
is called hypocholesterolemia. This condition is seen in hyperthyroidism acute
infection,anemia,malnutrition etc. If the cholesterol level exceeds normal value the condition is
called hypercholesterolemia. This condition is seen in hypothyroidism infection, poorly controlled
diabetes mellitus,chronic hepatitis,nephrotic syndrome, obstructive Jaundice. Thus the
determination of blood cholesterol level is the important diagnostic parameter from the clinical
point of view.
ROLE OF CHOLESTEROL
• It serves as a structural component of the cell membrane which determines the shape of a cell
membrane .
• Cholesterol functions as an insulating cover for the transmission of electrical impulses in the
nervous tissue.
• It is the precursor of a large number of equally important steriods which include the bile acids,
sex hormones and vitamin D.
• The low concentration of cholesterol in female may lead to sterility ,so cholesterol play
important role in fertility .
• The excess cholesterol in the body leads to cardiovascular diseases.
• Steroids are the precursors of Vitmin D which maintains the serum calcium level.
What is a calorie?
• A unit of heat energy
• Fatshave the highest concentration of
calories.
 PROTEINS
• Made up of elements
 Carbon
 Hydrogen
 Oxygen
 Nitrogen
 Sulfur
 PROTEINS
• Itsbuilding blocks are amino acids.
 20 amino acids found in human protein
 11 are synthesized by the body
 9 are supplied by the foods that we eat
(also known as essential amino acids)
 9 Essential Amino Acids
Adult: Valine, Isoleucine, Leucine,
Lysine, Methionine, Phenylalanine,
Threonine and Trytophan
Infant: Histidine
 11 Nonessential Amino Acids
8 Conditional Amino Acids
3 Nonconditional Amino Acids
- Arginine

- Glutamine
- Alanine
- Tyrosine - Asparagine
- Cysteine
- Aspartate
- Glycine

- Proline

- Serine

- Ornithine
Structure of Amino Acid
When two amino acids react, a peptide is
formed.
• Condensation
Reaction:
Two amino acids join
together and water is
formed.
The bond is called
peptide bond and the
product is a dipeptide.
• Longerchains are called polypeptides and chains
of 50 or more amino acids are called proteins.
Structures of Proteins
PROTEIN MALNUTRITION
 ENZYMES
• Another type of protein
• Known as biological catalysts, speeds up
biochemical reactions
NUCLEOTIDES
• The
monomers of nucleic
acids
• Madeup of a five-carbon
sugar (pentose), a
phosphate group and a ring-
shaped base containing
nitrogen
NUCLEOTIDE MODEL
DNA vs RNA