Intellectual Revolution that

Defined Society

Prepared by:

CLARISSA ORILLAZA ROMULO

Professor
Objectives:
Discuss how the ideas postulated by
Copernicus, Darwin and Freud
contributed to the spark of scientific
revolution; and
Analyze how scientific revolution is
done in various parts of the world like
Latin America, East Asia, Middle East
an Africa.
Scientific Revolution
Science is as old as the world
itself. There is no individual that
can exactly identify when and
where science began. From the
genesis of time, science has
existed. It is always interwoven
with the society. So how can
science be define?
Science Defined
1. Science as an Ideas. It
includes ideas, theories, and
all available explanations and
observations about the
natural and physical world.
2. Science as an intellectual
activity. It encompasses a
systematic and practical study of
the natural and physical world.
This process involves systematic
observation and experimentation.
3. Science as a body of knowledge.
It is a subject or a discipline, a
field of study, or a body of
knowledge that deals with the
process of learning about the
natural and physical world. This is
what we refer to as school science.
4. Science as a personal and social
activity. This explains that science
is both knowledge and activities
done by human beings to develop
better understanding of the world
around them. It is a means to
improve life and to survive in life.
It is interwoven with people’s lives.
Human beings have embarked in scientific
activities in order to know and understand
everything around theme.

They persistently observed and studied

the natural and physical world in order
to find meanings and seek answers to
many questions.
They have developed noble ideas, later
known as philosophy, to provide
alternative or possible explanations to
certain phenomena
People also used religion to rationalize
the origins of life and all lifeless forms.
The idea of scientific revolution is
claimed to have started in the early 16th
century up the 18th century in Europe.
Why in Europe? The probable answer
is the invention of the printing machine
and the blooming intellectual activities
done in various places of learning, and
growing number of scholars in various
fields of human interest.
 This does NOT mean, however, that
science is a foreign idea transported
from other areas of the globe. Anyone
who can examine the history of
science, technology, medicine, and
mathematics is aware that all great
civilizations of the ancient world had
their own sophisticated traditions and
activities related to these disciplines.
Scientific revolution was the period of
enlightenment when the developments
in the fields of mathematics, physics,
astronomy, biology, and chemistry
transformed the views of society about
nature.
 It explained the emergence or birth of
modern science as a result of these
developments from the disciplines
mentioned.
The ideas generated during this period
enabled the people to reflect, rethink,
and reexamine their belief and their
way of life. There is no doubt that is
ignited vast human interests to rethink
how they do science and view scientific
processes.
Scientific revolution was the golden
age for people committed to scholarly
life in science but it was also a deeply
trying moment to some scientific
individuals that led to their painful
death or condemnation from the
religions institutions who tried to
preserve their faith, religion, and
theological views.
Some rulers and religious leaders did
not accept many of the early works of
scientists. But these did not stop
people especially scientists to satisfy
their curiosity of the natural world.
Figure 1. Influences to Scientific Revolution
Scientific revolution is very significant
in the development of human beings,
transformation of society, and in the
formulation of scientific ideas.
It significantly improve the conduct of
scientific revolution also led to the creation
of new research fields in science and
prompted the establishment of a strong
foundation for modern science. In many
ways, scientific revolution transformed the
natural world and the world ideas
 Some Intellectuals and their
Revolutionary Ideas
To further understand what exactly
happened during the scientific
revolution, it is important to examine
the different individuals whose ideas
have shaken and contested the
dominant theories and ideas during this
period – the truths and their time.
Scientists in all periods of time are driven
by their curiosity, critical thinking, and
creativity to explore the physical and
natural world. Their love for science is
driven by their deep passion to know and
discover
 Scientists Science
Creativity
Ideas
Curiosity Passion to
know Science
Critical Discoveries
Thinking Passion to Technology
discover

Figure 2. Variables that Influence the

Development of Science Ideas, Science
Discoveries and Technology
Scientists are not driven by clamor for
honor and publicity. They are ordinary
people doing extraordinary things. Some
scientist were never appreciated during
their time, some were sentenced to death,
while others were condemned by the
Church during their time. In spite of all
predicaments and challenges they
experienced, they never stopped
experimenting, theorizing, and discovering
new knowledge and ideas.
 Three notable scientist through their ideas,
had shaken the world

1. Nicolaus Copernicus
2. Charles Darwin
3. Sigmund Freud
 Nicolaus Copernicus
One of the Renaissance men,
particularly in the field of Science
Resembled the Greek ancient philosophers
or thinkers – he did not do anything
extensive such as observing heavenly
bodies or inviting people to test his ideas.
His ideas were an example of what is
presently called as a Thought Experiment.
Had been appointed as canon at Frombork
Cathedral in Poland after his doctorate
degree.
He was strongly influenced by a book
entitled “Epitome” published in 1496 by a
German author, Johannes Mueller. This
book contains Mueller observations of the
heavens and some commentary on earlier
works especially that of Ptolemy.
His ideas and model of the universe
was essentially complete in 1510.
He circulated a summary of his ideas
to his few close friends in a manuscript
called “Commentariolus (Little
Commentary)”. There was no proof
that Copernicus was concerned about
the risk of persecution by the Church if
he published his ideas formally.
The publication of his book De
revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the
Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) in
1543 is often cited as the start of the
scientific revolution
In his book, he wanted a model of the
universe in which everything moved
around a single center at unvarying
rates (Gribbin, 2003). Copernicus
placed the Sun to be the centerpiece of
the universe. The Earth and all planets
are surrounding or orbiting the Sun
each year. The Moon however, would
still be seen orbiting the Earth.
He modeled two kinds of planetary
motion
1. The orbits of Venus and Mercury
inside the orbit of the Earth, thus
closer to the Sun;
2. The orbits of Mars , Saturn and
Jupiter lay outside the Earth’s
orbit, thus farther from the Sun.
 One of the great problems in his
model was the position of the stars.
The stars cannot be placed in a fixed
position like crystals in a distance
sphere.
 He is courageous man. Although his
model makes sense now, during those
times, it was judged to be heretic and
therefore it was an unacceptable in idea
to be taught to Catholics. The Catholic
Church banned the Copernican model
and was ignored by Rome for the rest
of the 16 Century.
 Charles Darwin
 Famous for his Theory of Evolution
 He changed the world’s concept of the
World’s Creation and its Evolution.
 He is genius who came from a line of
intellectually gifted and wealthy family.
 He developed his interest in natural
history during his time as a student at
Shewsbury School.
 Spend time taking long walks to
observe his surroundings while
collecting specimens and he pored
over books in his father’s library
(Gribbin, 2003).
 Darwin went to best schools but was
observed to be a mediocre student.
 He struggled in his study in medicine
and ministry, which his father has
imposed to him (Johnson).
 His life changed when one of his
professors recommended him to join a
five-year voyage through the HMS
Beagle on the Islands of Galapagos.
 He published his book “The Origin
of Species” in 1589. This book
considered to be one of the most
important works in scientific
literature.
  He collected many significant materials
in order to present his theory with
overwhelming evidence. His book
presented evidence on how species
evolved over time and presented traits and
adaptation the differentiate species.

 Like many other scholars, He

accumulated many pertinent materials and
data that he could ever possibly need to
substantiate his theory.
 His observational skills as a scientist
were extraordinary that moved beyond
the realms of plant and animals into
the realms of humans.
His book “The Descent of Man” was
so impressive yet very controversial.
He introduced the idea of all organic
life, including human beings under the
realms of evolutionary thinking.
 This replaced the views of a
religious or biblical design that places
human beings in a privileged position
of having been created by God. His
theory of evolution scientifically
questioned this view.
 His accomplishments were so
diverse that it is useful to distinguish
two fields to which he made major
contributions: Evolutionary biology
and Philosophy of Science.
 More than these works, what made
him truly remarkable was his courage
to challenge religious and unscientific
ideas that are deemed to be prominent
during those days.
 His unorthodox was of pursuing
science gave more value to evidence-
based science. He provided a
different framework for doing
scientific activities. It is a science
marked by observation and
experimentation.
 Sigmund Freud
 A famous figure in the field of psychology
 Described as towering literary figure and a
very talented communicator who did his share
to raise the consciousness of the civilized
world in psychological matters.
He made significant contribution in the
scientific world through the development of
an important observational method to gather
reliable data to study human’s inner life.
 This method is popularly known as the
method of psychoanalysis. The scientific
hypothesis he formulated formed the essential
fundamental version of this method.

 This method of psychoanalysis is a scientific

way to study the human mind and neurotic illness.
It is no doubt that amidst all questions on his
works that led to some sort of academic
controversy, his method of psychoanalysis had
great impact on the scientific way of
understanding human nature.
 He is not a traditional thinker. His
method of psychoanalysis was proven to
be effective in understanding some
neurological conditions that were not
understood by medicine at that time.
 His method was not unorthodox-focusing on
human sexuality and the evil nature of man.
This posed immense challenges to scholars
and ordinary citizens of his time. To some,
they found his ideas not easy especially in his
explanations of human sexuality.
 Was born in a much later period from the
scientific revolution but his contribution to
knowledge can be seen in many aspects of the
human scene, including art, literature,
philosophy, politics and psychotheraphy.
Whether he is more of a psychologist or a
scientist is for people to decide. The fact
remains that Freudian ideas and theories are still
considered nowadays as a great inspiration to
examine human mind and behavior in a more
scientifically accepted way.
 Cradles of Early Science
Development of Science in Mesoamerica
Mesoamerica includes the entire area of
Central America from Southern Mexico
up to the border of South America.
 rich in culture and knowledge prior to
the arrival of its European colonizers
 Maya Civilization is on of the famous
civilizations that lasted approximately
2,000 years.
 Known for there works in astronomy
 Advanced understanding of astronomy
in their temples for astronomical
observation.
Ex. The pyramid at Chinchen Itza in
Mexico is situated at the location of
the Sun during the spring and fall
equinox.
 Mayan knowledge and understanding about
celestial bodies was advanced for their time,
as evidenced by their knowledge of predicting
eclipse and using astrological cycles in
planting and harvesting.
 Known for measuring time using two
complicated calendar systems. These
calendars were very useful for their life
especially in planning their activities and in
observing their religious rituals and cultural
celebrations.
 The Mayans also developed the
technology for growing different crops
and building elaborate cities using
ordinary machineries and tools they
build hydraulics system with
sophisticated waterways to supply water
to different communities
 They used various tools and adapt
themselves to innovations especially in
the field of arts.
 The Mayans built looms for
weaving cloth and devised a
rainbow of glittery paints made from
a mineral called MICA.
 They also believed to be one of the
first people to produce rubber
products 3,000 years before
Goodyear received its patent in
1844.
 The Mayans are considered one of the most
scientifically advanced societies in
Mesoamerica. They are also famous as one
of the world’s first civilizations to use a
writing system known as the Mayan
hieroglyphics.
They were also skilled in Mathematics and
created number system based on the numeral
20.
 They independently developed the concept
of zero and positional value, even before the
time of Roman did.
 The Inca Civilization is also famous in
Mesoamerica. The Incas made advanced
scientific ideas considering their
limitations as an old civilization.
The following were scientific ideas and
tools that they developed to help them in
every day life.
1.Roads paved with stones.
2.Stone buildings that surmounted
earthquakes and other disasters.
3.Irrigation system and technique for
storing water for their crops to grow in
all types of land.
4. Calendar with 12 months to mark their
religious festivals and prepare them for
planting season.
5. The first suspension bridge.
6. Quipu, a system of knotted ropes to
keep records that the only expert can
interpret; and
7. Inca textiles since cloth was one of the
specially prized artistic achievement.
Aztec Civilization has also substantial
contributions to science and technology
and the society as a whole. Some of
their contributions are the following:
1. Mandatory Education. The Aztec puts
value on education; that is why their
children are mandated to get education
regardless of their social class, gender
or age. It is an early form of universal o
inclusive education.
2. Chocolates. The Aztec in Medico
developed chocolate during their time.
In the Mayan culture, they used it as
currency. The Aztec valued the cacao
beans highly and made it as part of
their tribute to their gods.
3. Antispasmodic medication. They used
a type of antispasmodic medication
that could prevent muscle spasms and
relax muscles, which could help during
surgery.
4. Chinampa. It is a form of Aztec
technology for agricultural farming in
which the land was divided into
rectangular areas and surrounded by
canals.
5. Aztec calendar. This enable them to
plan their activities, rituals, and
planting season.
6. Invention of the canoe. A light narrow
boat used for traveling in water
systems.
 Development of Science in Asia
Asia is the biggest continent in the world and
the home of many ancient civilizations. IT is a host
to many cultural, economic, scientific, and political
activities of all ages. In the field of science,
technology, and mathematics, great civilizations
have stood out: India, China, and the Middle East
civilizations. These civilizations were incomparable
in terms of their contributions to the development
of knowledge during their time.
India
 India is a huge peninsula surrounded by vast
bodies of water and fortified by huge
mountains in its northern boarders.
 Creatively developed various ideas and
technologies useful in their everyday lives.
 Known for manufacturing iron and in
metallurgical works.
 Their iron steel is considered to be the best and
held with high regards in the whole Roman
Empire
• Famous in medicine. Ex. Ayurveda, a
system of traditional medicine that originated
in ancient India before 2500 BC, is still
practiced as a form of alternative medicine.
• They discovered some medicinal properties
of plants that led them to develop medicines
to cure various illnesses.
• Some ancient texts, like the Suruta Samhita,
Describes different surgical and other medical
procedures famous in Ancient India.
• Notable in the field of astronomy
• Developed theories on the
configuration of the universe, the
spherical self-supporting Earth, and the
year of 360 days with 12 equal parts of
30 days each.
• Sama (2008) noted that their interest in
astronomy was also evident in the first
12 chapters of the Siddhanta
Shiromani, written in the 12th century.
• According to Sama (2000), this ancient
text covered topics such as; mean
longitudes of the planets; true
longitudes of the planets; the three
problems of diurnal rotation; syzygies;
lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes
of the planets; risings and settings; the
moons crescent; conjunctions of the
planets with each other; conjunction of
planets with the fixed stars; and the
paths of the Sun and Moon.
• Ancient India is also know for their
mathematics. Bisht (1982) noted that the
earliest traces of mathematical knowledge
in the Indian subcontinent appeared in the
Indus Valley Civilization.
• the people of this civilization according to
Bisht tried to standardize measurement of
length to a high degree of accuracy and
designed a ruler, the Mohenjo-daro ruler.
 Clifford (2008) and Bose (1998)
pointed out that Indian astronomer and
mathematician Aryabhata (476-550), in
his Aryabhatiya, introduced a number of
trigonometric functions, tables, and
techniques, as well as algorithms of
algebra.
 In 628 AD, another Indian Grahmagupta,
also suggested that gravity was a force of
attraction, and lucidly explained the use of
zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit,
along with the Hindu-Arabic numeral system
now used universally throughout the world
(Clifford, 2008; bose, 1998).
 Another Indian named Madhava of
Sangamagrama is also considered as the
founder of mathematical analysis (Joseph,
1991).
 China
 One of the ancient civilizations with
substantial contributions in many areas of
life medicine, astronomy, science,
mathematics, arts, philosophy and music,
among others.
 Have greatly influenced by many of its
neighbor countries like Korea, Japan,
Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand,
Cambodia, Myanmar, and other countries
that belong to the old Silk Road.
 Chinese are known for traditional medicines,
a product of centuries of experiences and
discovery of the Chinese people.
 Discovered various medical properties and
uses of different plants and animals to cure
human illnesses. Ex. Acupancture.
 In terms of technology, the Chinese are
known to develop many tools like compass,
papermaking, gunpowder, and printing tools
that become know in the West only by the end
of the Middle Ages (Davies, 1995).
 They invented tools like iron plough,
wheelbarrow and propeller
 They developed a design of different
models of bridges (Zhonggo ke xue yuan,
1983), invented the first seismological
detector, and developed a dry dock
facility (Heedham et al., 1971).
 In the field of astronomy, the Chinese
also made significant records on
supernovas, lunar and solar eclipses, and
comets, which were carefully recorded
and preserved to understand better the
heavenly bodies and their effects to our
world (Mayall, 1939).
 They observed heavenly bodies to
undertand weather changes and seasons
that may affect their daily activities. They
used calendars, too.
 They are known in seismology. This made
them more prepared in times of natural
calamities.
 China made substantial contributions in
various fields. The list of their discoveries and
inventions is overwhelming.
 Theses contributions were made along with
mathematics, logic, philosophy, and medicine.
However, cultural factor prevented these
Chinese achievements from developing into
modern science.
 According to Needham (1986), it may
have been the religious and philosophical
framework of Chinese intellectuals that
made them unable to accept the ideas of
laws of nature.
 Middle East Countries
 Dominantly occupied by Muslims.
 Spread of Islam in the 7th and 8th
Centuries, a period of Muslim
Scholarship, or what is called the Golden
Age of Islam lasted until the 13 Century.
 Common language of Arabic, access to
Greek texts from the Byzantine Empire,
and their proximity to India were
contributory to the intellectualization of
the Muslims provided their Scholars
knowledge to create innovations and
develop new Ideas.
 Contrary to the Greeks, Muslims
scientists placed greater value on science
experiments rather than plain thought
experiments.
 This led to the development of the
scientific method in the Muslim world,
and made significant improvements by
using experiments to distinguish between
competing scientific theories set within a
generally empirical orientation.
 A Muslim scientist named Ibn al-
Haytham is also regarded as the Father of
Optics, especially for empirical proof of
the intromission theory of light.
 In mathematics, Muhammad Ibn Musa
al-Khwarizi gave his name to the concept
of the algorithm while the term algebra is
derived from al-jabr, the beginning of the
title of one of his publication.
 Arabic Numeral System originally came
from India, but Muslim mathematicians did
make several refinements to the number
system, such as the introduction of decimal
point notation.
 Muslim chemists and alchemists also played
an important role in the foundation of modern
chemistry (Durant, 1980). In particular, some
scholars considered Jabir ibn Hayyan to be the
“Father of Chemistry, 2007; Warren, 2005)
 In Medicine, Ibn Sina pioneered the
science of experimental medicine and was
the first physician to conduct clinical trials
(Jacquart 2008). His two most notable
works in medicine, The book of Healing
and The Canon of Medicine, where used
as standard medicinal texts in both the
Muslim world and in Europe during the
17th century.
 Among this many contributions are the
discovery of the contagious nature of infectious
diseases and the introduction of clinical
pharmacology (Craig & Walter, 2000).
 There are numerous Muslim scholars who
made significant contributions in the field of
social sciences. The decline of this golden age
of Islam started in the 11th to 13 century due to
the conquest of the Mongols whereby libraries,
observatories and other learning institutions
were destroyed.
 Development of Science in Africa
 Africa is blessed with natural and
mineral resources. Science also emerged
in this part of the planet long before the
Europeans colonized it. The history of
science and mathematics show that similar
to other ancient civilizations, the early
civilizations in Africa are knowledge
producers too.
 The ancient Egyptian civilization has
contributed immensely and made
significant advances in the fields of
astronomy, mathematics, and medicine.
Ex. The development of geometry was a
product of necessity to preserve the layout
and ownership of farmlands of the
Egyptians living along the Nile River.
 The rules of geometry were developed
and used to build rectilinear structures, the
post of lintel architecture of Egypt.
 these early sciences activities in Egypt
were developed to improve the quality of
life of the Egyptians especially in building
their early homes and cities. The great
structures of the Egyptians pyramid and
the early dams build to divert water from
the Nile River are some proofs of their
advanced civilization.
 Egypt was know to be a center of
alchemy, which is known as the medieval
forerunner of chemistry.
 They tried to study human anatomy and
pharmacology, and applied important
components such as examination,
diagnosis, treatment and prognosis for the
treatment of disease. This components
displayed strong parallels to the basic
empirical method of studying science.
 Astronomy was also famous in the African
region. For instance, documents show that
Africans used three types of calendars; Lunar,
solar and stellar, or a combination of the three.
 Metallurgy was also known in the African
regions during the ancient times. North Africa
and the Nile valley imported iron technology
from the Near East region that enabled them to
benefit from the developments during the
Bronze age until the Iron Age.
 They invented metal tools used in their
homes, in agriculture, and in building their
magnificent architectures.
 Mathematics was also known to be
prominent in the life of early people in the
African continent. The Lebombo Bone from
the mountains between Swaziland and South
Africa, which may have been a tool for
multiplication, division, and simple
mathematical calculation or a six moth lunar
calendar is considered to be the oldest known
• The Lebombo Bone from the mountains
between Swaziland and South Africa,
which may have been a tool for
multiplication, division, and simple
mathematical calculation or a six moth
lunar calendar is considered to be the oldest
known mathematical artifact dated from
35,000 BCE.
• Ancient Egyptians are good in the four
fundamental mathematical operations and
other mathematical skills.
• They have knowledge of the basic
concepts of algebra and geometry. The
Islamic regions in Africa during the
medieval period was also benefiting from
mathematical learning, which is considered
advanced during those times such as
algebra, geometry and trigonometry.
 Summary
Scientific revolution is a golden age in
the history of science. It marked the birth
of science as a discipline and as a field of
inquiry and gave birth to the development
of the scientific method. It was a time in
the history of science where many scientific
ideas and discoveries, which were
considered innovative and useful, were
developed.
Some of these ideas were also controversial in
the scientific community and in the political
arena. The scientific activities. It inspired
human creativity and critical thinking, moving
away from thought experiments to data-driven
and experiment-based ideas.
There were many intellectuals who made
essential contributions in science during the
period of scientific revolution. Nicolaus
Copernicus developed a model of the universe
in which everything moved around a single
center at varying rates.
He placed the Sun in the center of the universe and
all the planets were surrounding or orbiting it.
Copernicus’ model of planets orbiting around the
Sun automatically positioned the planets into a
logical sequence. Charles Darwin made significant
contribution in the field of evolutionary biology
and philosophy of science. His theory of evolution
by natural selection in very useful in many field
until now. Sigmund Freud developed the idea of
psychoanalysis that helped in understanding human
behavior especially neurological conditions.
 Science also developed in different
parts of the world: In Asia, Europe,
Mesoamerica, and Africa. People in these
continents invented tools to help them in
everyday life, discovered medicines to cure
diseases, observed heavenly bodies, built
structures, discovered many things, and
invented mathematics as a tool and as a
discipline.
 Science provided different ancient
civilizations the means of survive and
understand the different ancient
civilizations the means to survive and
understand the natural and the physical
world. It also enabled human beings to
develop various technologies that helped
them in their everyday tasks.
Assignment:
1.How did society shape science and how
did science shape society?
2.How do social and human issues
influence science?
3.How do the political and cultural
landscapes of the society affect the
development of scientific culture, science
activities and science literacy?
4. Considering the current state of our
society, do you think science literacy
among people has contributed to the
growth of our economy? Justify your
answer.
5. How can science influence government
policies? Cite example and explain.
 Activity
1. Review the history of science and make
a timeline highlighting the major
discoveries and developments in
science.