DATA LINK LAYER

Error Detection in Computer Networks-

• When sender transmits data to the receiver, the data might get
scrambled by noise or data might get corrupted during the
transmission.
Error Detection Methods-
 Some popular error detection methods are-
1. Single Parity Check
2. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
3. Checksum

Single Parity Check-

 In this technique,
•One extra bit called as parity bit is sent along with the original data bits.
•Parity bit helps to check if any error occurred in the data during the transmission.
 Cont..

• Step-01:
• At sender side,
• Total number of 1’s in the data unit to be transmitted is counted.
• The total number of 1’s in the data unit is made even in case of even parity.
• The total number of 1’s in the data unit is made odd in case of odd parity.
• This is done by adding an extra bit called as parity bit.
•  
• Step-02:
•  The newly formed code word (Original data + parity bit) is transmitted to the receiver.
•  
• Step-03:
• At receiver side,
• Receiver receives the transmitted code word.
• The total number of 1’s in the received code word is counted.
 
• Then, following cases are possible-
• If total number of 1’s is even and even parity is used, then receiver assumes that no error occurred.
• If total number of 1’s is even and odd parity is used, then receiver assumes that error occurred.
• If total number of 1’s is odd and odd parity is used, then receiver assumes that no error occurred.
• If total number of 1’s is odd and even parity is used, then receiver assumes that error occurred.
 Cont..
• Parity Check Example- 
• Consider the data unit to be transmitted is 1001001 and even parity is used.
• At Sender Side-
• Total number of 1’s in the data unit is counted.
• Total number of 1’s in the data unit = 3.
• Clearly, even parity is used and total number of 1’s is odd.
• So, parity bit = 1 is added to the data unit to make total number of 1’s even.
• Then, the code word 10010011 is transmitted to the receiver.

• At Receiver Side-
• After receiving the code word, total number of 1’s in the code word is counted.
• Consider receiver receives the correct code word = 10010011.
• Even parity is used and total number of 1’s is even.
• So, receiver assumes that no error occurred in the data during the transmission.
 CYCLIC REDUNDANCY CHECK (CRC)
• Cyclic Redundancy Check-
• Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) is an error detection method.
• It is based on binary division.
• CRC Generator-
• CRC generator is an algebraic polynomial represented as a bit pattern.
• Bit pattern is obtained from the CRC generator using the following rule-
• NOTE: The power of each term gives the position of the bit and the coefficient
gives the value of the bit.
• Example-
• Consider the CRC generator is x7 + x6 + x4 + x3 + x + 1.
• The corresponding binary pattern is obtained as-
• 1x7 + 1x6 + 0x5 + 1x4 + 1x3 + 0x2 + 1x1 + 1x0

1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
 Cont..
• Step-01: Calculation Of CRC At Sender Side-
• A string of n 0’s is appended to the data unit to be transmitted.
• Here, n is one less than the number of bits in CRC generator.
• Binary division is performed of the resultant string with the CRC generator.
• After division, the remainder so obtained is called as CRC.
• It may be noted that CRC also consists of n bits.

• Step-02: Appending CRC To Data Unit-

• The CRC is obtained after the binary division.
• The string of n 0’s appended to the data unit earlier is replaced by the CRC
remainder.

• Step-03: Transmission To Receiver-

• The newly formed code word (Original data + CRC) is transmitted to the
receiver.
 
 Cont..
• Step-04: Checking at Receiver Side-
• At receiver side,
• The transmitted code word is received.
• The received code word is divided with the same CRC generator.
• On division, the remainder so obtained is checked.
• The following two cases are possible-
• Case-01: Remainder = 0
• If the remainder is zero,
• Receiver assumes that no error occurred in the data during the transmission.
• Receiver accepts the data
• Case-02: Remainder ≠ 0
• If the remainder is non-zero,
• Receiver assumes that some error occurred in the data during the transmission.
• Receiver rejects the data and asks the sender for retransmission.
 Cont..

• Problem-01: 
• A bit stream 1101011011 is transmitted using the standard CRC method. The
generator polynomial is x4+x+1. What is the actual bit string transmitted?

• Solution-
• The generator polynomial G(x) = x4 + x + 1 is encoded as 10011.
• Clearly, the generator polynomial consists of 5 bits.
• So, a string of 4 zeroes is appended to the bit stream to be transmitted.
• The resulting bit stream is 11010110110000.

• Now, the binary division is performed as-

Cont..

From here, CRC = 1110.

Now,
The code word to be
transmitted is obtained by
replacing the last 4 zeroes of
11010110110000 with the CRC.
Thus, the code word
transmitted to the receiver
= 11010110111110.
 
 Cont..

• Problem-02:
• A bit stream 10011101 is transmitted using the standard CRC method. The
generator polynomial is x3+1.
1. What is the actual bit string transmitted?
2. Suppose the third bit from the left is inverted during transmission. How will
receiver detect this error?
• Solution-
• Part-01:
• The generator polynomial G(x) = x3 + 1 is encoded as 1001.
• Clearly, the generator polynomial consists of 4 bits.
• So, a string of 3 zeroes is appended to the bit stream to be transmitted.
• The resulting bit stream is 10011101000.
 
• Now, the binary division is performed as-
Cont..
 Cont..

• From here, CRC = 100.

• Now,
• The code word to be transmitted is obtained by replacing the last 3 zeroes of
10011101000 with the CRC.
• Thus, the code word transmitted to the receiver = 10011101100.

• Part-02:

• According to the question,

• Third bit from the left gets inverted during transmission.
• So, the bit stream received by the receiver = 10111101100.

• Now,
• Receiver receives the bit stream = 10111101100.
• Receiver performs the binary division with the same generator polynomial as-
Cont..

From here,
The remainder obtained on
division is a non-zero value.
This indicates to the receiver that
an error occurred in the data
during the transmission.
Therefore, receiver rejects the
data and asks the sender for
retransmission.
 CHECKSUM
• Checksum-
•  Step-01:
•  At sender side,
• If m bit checksum is used, the data unit to be transmitted is divided into segments of m bits.
• All the m bit segments are added.
• The result of the sum is then complemented using 1’s complement arithmetic.
• The value so obtained is called as checksum.
•  Step-02:
•  The data along with the checksum value is transmitted to the receiver.
•  Step-03:
•  At receiver side,
• If m bit checksum is being used, the received data unit is divided into segments of m bits.
• All the m bit segments are added along with the checksum value.
• The value so obtained is complemented and the result is checked.
•  Then, following two cases are possible-
•  Case-01: Result = 0
•  If the result is zero,
• Receiver assumes that no error occurred in the data during the transmission.
• Receiver accepts the data.
•  Case-02: Result ≠ 0
•  If the result is non-zero,
• Receiver assumes that error occurred in the data during the transmission.
• Receiver discards the data and asks the sender for retransmission.
 Cont..

• Checksum Example-
• Consider the data unit to be transmitted is-
• 10011001111000100010010010000100
• Consider 8 bit checksum is used.
• Step-01:
• At sender side,
• The given data unit is divided into segments of 8 bits as-

10011001 11100010 00100100 10000100

• Now, all the segments are added and the result is obtained as-
• 10011001 + 11100010 + 00100100 + 10000100 = 1000100011
• Since the result consists of 10 bits, so extra 2 bits are wrapped around.
• 00100011 + 10 = 00100101 (8 bits)
• Now, 1’s complement is taken which is 11011010.
• Thus, checksum value = 11011010
 Cont..

• Step-02:
• The data along with the checksum value (11011010) is transmitted to the
receiver.
• Step-03:
• At receiver side,
• The received data unit is divided into segments of 8 bits.
10011001 11100010 00100100 10000100

• All the segments along with the checksum value are added.
• Sum of all segments + Checksum value = 00100101 + 11011010 = 11111111
• Complemented value = 00000000
• Since the result is 0, receiver assumes no error occurred in the data and therefore
accepts it.
 Cont..

• Problem-
• Checksum value of 1001001110010011 and 1001100001001101 of 16 bit
segment is-
A. 1010101000011111
B. 1011111000100101
C. 1101010000011110
D. 1101010000111111
 
• Solution-
• We apply the above discussed algorithm to calculate the checksum.
• 1001001110010011 + 1001100001001101 = 10010101111100000
• Since, the result consists of 17 bits, so 1 bit is wrapped around and added to the
result.
• 0010101111100000 + 1 = 0010101111100001
• Now, result consists of 16 bits.
• Now, 1’s complement is taken which is 1101010000011110
• Thus, checksum value = 1101010000011110

• Thus, Option (C) is correct.