MODULE – 1 (cont….

)
Thermal Aspects of Machining
 Introduction
• When a metal is deformed plastically in metal cutting,
most of the energy used is converted into heat.

• The energy available at the cutting edge is converted to

frictional heat, caused by the destruction of molecular
bonds in metal in shear plane.

• The three main sources of heat are:

1. Shear zone (plastic deformation zone)
2. Chip- tool interface zone
3. Work- tool interface zone
 Thermal aspects in machining
1. The generation of heat,
2. The flow of heat, and
3. The temperature distribution in the tool and
work material near the tool edge.

• The very large amount of plastic strain, it is unlikely that

more than 1% of the work done is stored as elastic energy,
the remaining 99% going to heat the chip, the tool and the
work material.
Heat generation and Heat dissipation
 Distribution of Heat
The heat generation is closely related to the plastic
deformation and friction as follows:
1. Plastic deformation by shearing in the primary shear zone
(heat source Q1)
2.  Plastic deformation by shearing and friction on the
cutting face (heat source Q2)
3. Ž Friction between chip and tool on the tool flank.
(heat source Q3)
Heat is mostly dissipated by,
1. ŒThe discarded chip carries away about 60~80% of the
total heat (q1)
2. The work piece acts as a heat sink drawing away 10~20%
heat (q2)
3. ŽThe cutting tool will also draw away ~10% heat (q3).
Percentage of the
heat generated in
cutting going into
the work piece,
tool and chip, as a
function of cutting
speed.
Isotherms in the cutting tool, chip and workpiece
obtained by the finite element analysis.
Note, that the maximum temperature is at some distance away from the cutting edge
Knowledge of the cutting temperature is
important because it:

1. Affects the wear of the cutting tool. Cutting temperature is

the primary factor affecting the cutting tool wear.

2. Can induce thermal damage to the machined surface. High

surface temperatures promote the process of oxidation of
the machined surface.

3. Causes dimensional errors in the machined surface. The

cutting tool elongates as a result of the increased
temperature, and the position of the cutting tool edge shifts
toward the machined surface.
Cutting temperature control
The temperature in metal cutting can be reduced by:
1. Application of cutting fluids (coolants).
2. Change in the cutting conditions by reduction of cutting
speed and/or feed and DOC;
3. Selection of proper cutting tool geometry (positive tool
orthogonal rake angle).
Effect of temperature on chip
• The temperature of the chip can affect the performance of the
tool only as long as the chip remains in contact.

• The heat remaining in the chip after it breaks is carried out of

the system.

• In turning operations, much of the metal heated during one

revolution of the workpiece is removed on the next revolution,
and this portion of the heat is also fed into the chip.

• It is sometimes necessary to remove this heat with a liquid

coolant to maintain dimensional accuracy.
Effect of temperature on w/p
• Low cutting speeds, low rake angles and other factors
which give a small shear plane angle tend to increase
the heat flow into the workpiece.

• Alloying and treatments which reduce the ductility of the

work material will usually reduce the residual strain in
the workpiece.
 Influence of the cutting temperature on
machining effects

• Heat phenomena that occur in the narrow and in the

broad area of the cutting zone, are directly related to
1. wear rate of tool,
2. machinability rate of workpiece material,
3. tool stability,

• Generated heat goes from the cutting zone into the chips,
tool, workpiece and into the environment.

• There is decrease of the hardness of tool's cutting

elements, cutting wedge deformations, the loss of the tool
cutting ability and its bluntness occur.
 Temperature distribution
• Generated heat is distributed in to the workpiece, tool and
chips.
• The temperature level at working elements of the tool, at
processed surface and at chips depends on:

1. Workpiece material (its mechanical and chemical

characteristics),
2. Cutting speed,
3. Feed rate,
4. Depth of cut,
5. Tool geometry,
6. Lubricants type and many other relevant parameters.
Influence of Heat generation
• Beside the influence on tool wear, heat generated in the
cutting process has influence on:

1. Machining process productiveness,

2. Processed surface quality,
3. Accuracy of machining
4. Other output parameters of the machining process
Tool Wear
 Tool Wear Mechanisms

1. Abrasive wear
2. Adhesion wear

3. Diffusion
4. Oxidation
5. Fatigue wear

6. Chemical decomposing
1.Abrasive wear
• Chip (softer material) sliding over the face of tool (hard
material) may contain appreciable concentration of hard
particles.
• Hard particles act as small cutting edge like grinding wheel
• Hard particles result worn out of tool material
• Particles of hard material are intermittently turn out from the
surface and dragged along the surface.
2. Adhesive Wear
• When softer metal slide over hard metal , parts of soft metal
adhere high spots on the metal due to
• Friction
• High temperature
• Pressure

• The spots result irregular flow of chip over the face and build
up of more particles on the tool
3.Diffusion
• When a metal is in sliding contact with another metal the
temperature at the interface is high
• The high temperature allows the atoms of hard material to
diffuse into softer material matrix
4.Oxidation
• Oxidation is the result of reaction between tool face and
oxygen
• Ex. When machining steel work piece with HSS or cemented
carbide tool , groove formation is greatly accelerated if the
cutting zone is subjected to a jet oxygen.
5. Fatigue Wear
• Will occur when two surfaces slides in contact with other
under high pressure.
• Roughness of one surface interlocks with those of other.
• Due to friction , compressive force will be produced in one
side and tensile on other side ,these phenomenon cause
surface crack
 Types of Tool Wear

(a) flank wear

(b) crater wear
(c) notch wear
(d) nose radius wear
(e) comb (thermal)
cracks
(f)parallel (mechanical)
cracks
 1. Flank Wear
• Wear on the relief face

• Rubbing of the wear land against the machined surface

damages the surface and produces large flank forces
which increase deflections and reduce dimensional
accuracy

• Flank wear can be minimized by increasing the

abrasion and deformation resistance of the tool
material, and by the use of hard coatings on the tool.
Flank wear
1. Primary region-
breakage of sharp
cutting edges

2. Secondary zone -The

predominant zone
caused by abrasion.

3. Tertiary zone -Very

sensitive to
temperature ,caused by
diffusion wear and
Increment of MRR
increases flank wear
 2. Crater Wear
• Rake face or crater wear
• Crater formation increases the effective rake angle of the
tool
• Excessive crater wear weakens the cutting edge and can
lead to deformation or fracture of the tool

• Crater wear can be minimized by increasing the chemical

stability of the tool material or by decreasing the tool's
chemical solubility in the chip; this can be done by
applying coatings
 3. Notch Wear
• Tools used in rough turning often develop notch wear on
the tool face

• Notch wear may also result from oxidation if a coolant is

used, or by chemical reactions or corrosion at the
interface between the tool and the atmosphere

• Notch wear can be reduced by increasing the lead angle,

which increases the area of contact between the tool
and part surface, by varying the depth of cut in multi-
pass operations, and by increasing the hot hardness and
deformation resistance of the tool material.
 4. Nose Radius Wear
• Nose radius wear occurs on the nose radius of the tool,
on the trailing edge near the end of the relief face.

• It resembles a combined form of flank and notch wear,

and results primarily from abrasion and corrosion or
oxidation

• Severe nose radius wear degrades the machined surface

finish.
5. Thermal and mechanical cracking
• cyclic loading of the tool in interrupted cutting.
• Two types of cracks may occur:
• cracks perpendicular to the cutting edge, which
usually result from cyclic thermal loads, especially
when coolant is not used, and
• cracks parallel to the cutting edge, which usually
result from cyclic mechanical loads.
• Crack formation leads to rapid tool fracture or
chipping.
Types of tool wear
(g) built-up edge
(h) gross plastic
deformation
(i) edge chipping or
frittering
(j) chip hammering
(k)gross fracture.
 Factors affecting tool life
Tool life is defined as the time elapsed between two
successive grinding of the tool or replacement of the tool.

1. Cutting speed
2. Depth of cut
3. Feed rate
4. Tool material properties
5. Tool geometry
6. Work material property
7. Type of cutting fluids
8. Rigidity of machine tool.
9. Nature of cutting
 Taylor’s tool life equation

VT n = C
• Where, V is the cutting speed(m/min), T is the tool life(min),
n is Taylor exponent.
• n and C are constants depends on work material, feed,
depth of cut and cutting conditions.

V1T1 n = V2T2 n
 Modified Taylor’s tool life equation

VT n d n f n = C
1 2

• where V is the cutting speed(m/min), f is the feed(mm/rev), d

is depth of cut(mm), T is the tool life(min), n, n1 and n2 are
Taylor exponent.
• n, n1 and n2 and C are constants depends on work material,
feed, depth of cut and cutting speed.
Tool Materials
Tool Material Requirements
1. High Hardness
2. Adequate Mechanical Strength
3. Toughness
4. Resistance to wear
5. Resistance to thermal shock
6. Ease of fabrication
7. Economical
Tool Classification
• Ferrous (Iron based)
1. Carbon Steel
2. High Speed Steel(HSS)
3. Tool Steel

• Non Ferrous
1. Stellites
2. Refractory carbides
3. Ceramics
4. CBN
5. Diamond
1. Carbon Steels
• Limited tool life- not suited to mass production
• Can be formed into complex shapes for small production
runs
• low cost
• suited to hand tools, and wood working
• Carbon content about 0.9 to 1.35% with a hardness about
62 Rockwell
• Maximum cutting speeds about 5 m/min in dry condition.
• The hot hardness value is low. This is the major factor in
tool life.
• Used for machining soft metals like free cutting steels and
brass.
2. High Speed Steel
• An alloyed steel with 14-22% tungsten, as well as cobalt,
molybdenum and chromium,
• In addition 2.5 % to 10%cobalt – used to increase the red
hardness/ hot hardness
• 0.8% C and rest iron

• HSS is used for drills, milling cutters, single point cutting

tools, reamers and dies.

• It looses hardness above 600ºC

• Used at cutting speeds 40 to 50 m/min
3. Sintered HSS
• Superior strength & toughness
• Improved grindability
• Homogeneous and uniform hardness
• Longer Tool Life
• Higher speeds and feeds possible
• Steels used for– hobs, form tools, milling cutters
4.Coated HSS
• TiN Coatings- PVD Process – drills & taps
• Longer life, high productivity
• Reduced power consumption
• Coating is approximately three times harder than
base tool material
• Coating-lubricity-improves chip flow- less heat
generation
• Higher cutting speed
5. Stellite
• Cobalt 40 to 50% , Chromium 27 to 37%
Tungsten 14 to 29 %, Carbon 2 to 4%
• It can not be heat treated and are used in the as cast
form.
• It looses its hardness about 800ºC
• Better tool life than HSS
• Weak in tension, fails under shock load if not
supported
6. Tool steel
• Tool steel refers to a variety of carbon and alloy steels .
• Their suitability comes from their distinctive hardness,
resistance to abrasion and deformation, and their ability to
hold a cutting edge at elevated temperatures.
• Carbon content between 0.5% and 1.5%, tool steels are
manufactured under carefully controlled conditions to
produce the required quality.
• The four major alloying elements that form carbides in tool
steel are: tungsten, chromium, vanadium and molybdenum.
• There are six groups of tool steels: water-hardening, cold-
work, shock-resistant, high-speed, hot-work, and special
purpose.
7. Ceramics
• Processing bauxide into dense crystalline form- alpha alumina
• Manufactured by Cold pressing or hot pressing
• Cold Pressing – Finely divided powders are compressed to
the required form and sintered
• Hot pressing- forming and pressing are combined by
applying pressure and heat simultaneously
• Poor wettability
• Used on high abrasive and reactive materials at higher cutting
speeds without formation of buildup edge
• Acid resistant, non conducting and non corrosive
• Interrupted cuts
Ceramics
• Magnesium and chromium added to obtain superior quality
• High degree of compressive strength
• Good abrasion resistance
• Low friction co-efficient
• Uniform strength up to 1200ºC
• Hot hardness-1400 ºC
8. Diamond
• Diamond is the hardest known material.
• It can have sharp cutting edge and has very high wear
resistance.
• Diamond tools are used for very light cuts to produce
exceptionally good surface finish and geometrical tolerance .
• Diamond is not suitable for ferrous metals, being carbon
based it possesses a strong chemical affinity to iron.
9. Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN)
• CBN Tools. Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN) Tools used for hard
machining applications.
• Other characteristics of CBN are its abrasion resistance,
thermal and chemical resistance and maintaining sharp edges
when cutting which are most effective when machining
ferrous materials.
• Cubic Boron Nitride Inserts. -CBN is an artificially synthesized
material exceeded in hardness only by diamond, while still
offering superior wear resistance to Carbide in certain
applications.
 Cutting Fluids
• Primarily, a cutting fluid must contribute in three ways to
a machining process.
1. It must act as a lubricant. By reducing friction, it
reduces the heat generated.
2. The cutting fluid must also act as an effective
coolant.
3. It should act as an anti-weld agent to counteract the
tendency of the work material to weld the tool
under heat and pressure.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF CUTTING FLUIDS ?

1. • Soluble Oils •

2. Synthetic(Chemical) Oils •

3. Semi-Synthetic Oils •

4. Straight Cutting Oils

Types of cutting fluids
Economics of machining
Introduction
• Manufacturing cost of a product should be kept low to
make the product acceptable in the market and also to
gain profit.

• In machining, we need to optimizing tool life to minimize

production cost and maximize production rate.

• If cutting speed is reduced to increase the tool life, the

metal removal rate will reduce.

• So that an optimum cutting speed has to be determined

for an economical tool life and production process.
Maximum production rate
Cycle time v/s cutting speed
Machining time (Tm )
Minimizing cost per unit
Cost per w/p v/s cutting speed
For minimum cost
Reasons why machining may be required:

• Close tolerances
• Good surface finish
• Special geometric features such as threads, precision holes, cylindrical
sections with high degree of roundness
Thank you