CHEM 111-2: General Chemistry I

Instructor:
Dr. Fatma Melis Çağdaş
E-mail: [email protected]

CHEM 111-1: General Chemistry I

Instructor:
Dr. Sevgi Sarıgül
E-mail: [email protected]
 CHAPTER 1:
Introduction
(1.1-1.9)
Chemistry
Chemistry is a branch of physical science that studies the
composition, structure, properties and change of matter.

CHEMISTRY

Health and Medicine (Vaccines and antibiotics)

Food and Agriculture (Fertilizers, cooking)
Energy and Environment (Fossil fuels, Solar energy)
Materials and Technology (Polymers, ceramics)
…
..
Etc.
Scientific Method
The scientific method is a systematic approach to
research

A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for a set

of observations

tested modified
Scientific Method
A law is a concise statement of a relationship
between phenomena that is always the same under
the same conditions.
A theory is a unifying principle that explains a body
of facts and/or those laws that are based on them.
Law V.S. Theory
Gravity
Just a Theory…
Scientific Method
Classifications of Matter
Chemistry is the study of matter and the
changes it undergoes
Matter is anything that occupies space and
has mass.
A substance is a form of matter that has a
definite composition and distinct properties.

liquid nitrogen gold ingots silicon crystals

Substances and Mixtures
A mixture is a combination of two or more substances in
which the substances retain their distinct identities.

Homogenous mixture Heterogeneous mixture

uniform composition composition is not uniform
soft drink, milk, solder cement, oil-water
iron filings in sand
Substances and Mixtures
Physical means can be
used to separate a
mixture into its pure
components.

magnet distillation
Elements and Compounds
An element is a substance that cannot be separated into
simpler substances by chemical means.
Elements and Compounds
A compound is a substance composed of atoms of two or
more elements chemically united in fixed proportions.

Compounds can only be separated into their pure

components (elements) by chemical means.
Classification of Matter

Ni, He, Fe H2O, CO2 Salty water, Oil-water,

Alloy detergent
States of Matter
Types of Changes
A physical change does not alter the composition or identity
of a substance.
sugar dissolving
ice melting
in water

A chemical change alters the composition or identity of the

substance(s) involved.

hydrogen burns in air to

form water
Extensive and Intensive Properties
An extensive property of a material depends upon how
much matter is being considered.
• Mass
• Length
• Volume

An intensive property of a material does not depend upon

how much matter is being considered.
• Density
• Temperature
• Color
Mass & Weight
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.
mass – measure of the quantity of matter
SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg)
1 kg = 1000 g = 1 x 103 g

weight – force that gravity exerts on an object

weight = c x mass A 1 kg bar will weigh

on earth, c = 1.0 1 kg on earth

on moon, c ~ 0.1 0.1 kg on moon

International System of Units (SI)

SI: (Fr.) System International d’Unites

International System of Units (SI)
Volume
1 cm3 = (1 x 10-2 m)3 = 1 x 10-6 m3
1 dm3 = (1 x 10-1 m)3 = 1 x 10-3 m3
1 L = 1000 mL = 1000 cm3 = 1 dm3
1 mL = 1 cm3
Density
Density – SI derived unit for density is kg/m3

mass m
density = d= V
volume

1 g/cm3 = 1 g/mL = 1000 kg/m3

Example: A piece of gold ingot with a mass of 301 g has a

volume of 15.6 cm3. Calculate the density of gold.
m
d= V
301 g
= = 19.3 g/cm3
15.6 cm3
Example
The density of mercury, the only metal that is a liquid at
room temperature, is 13.6 g/mL. Calculate the mass of 5.50
mL of the liquid.

mass
density = volume
Temperature Scales
K = 0C + 273.15
273 K = 0 0C
373 K = 100 0C

F =
0 9 x 0C + 32
5
32 0F = 0 0C
212 0F = 100 0C
Example
Convert 68 0F to degrees Celsius.

0
F = 9 x 0C + 32
5
0
F – 32 = 9 x 0C
5
5 x (0F – 32) = 0C
9
0
C = 5 x (0F – 32)
9
0
C = 5 x (68 – 32) = 20
9
Example
Solder is an alloy made of tin and lead that is used in electronic
circuits. A certain solder has a melting point of 224°C. What is
its melting point in degrees Fahrenheit?
Example
Helium has the lowest boiling point of all the elements
at 2452°F. Convert this temperature to degrees
Celsius.
Example
Mercury, the only metal that exists as a liquid at
room temperature, melts at 238.9°C. Convert
its melting point to kelvins.
Scientific Notation
The number of atoms in 12 g of carbon:
602,200,000,000,000,000,000,000
6.022 x 1023
The mass of a single carbon atom in grams:
0.0000000000000000000000199
1.99 x 10-23
N x 10n
N is a number n is a positive or
between 1 and 10 negative integer
Scientific Notation
568.762 0.00000772
move decimal left move decimal right
n>0 n<0
568.762 = 5.68762 x 102 0.00000772 = 7.72 x 10-6

Addition or Subtraction
1. Write each quantity with 4.31 x 104 + 3.9 x 103 =
the same exponent n
2. Combine N1 and N2 4.31 x 104 + 0.39 x 104 =
3. The exponent, n, remains 4.70 x 104
the same
Scientific Notation
Multiplication
1. Multiply N1 and N2 (4.0 x 10-5) x (7.0 x 103) =
(4.0 x 7.0) x (10-5+3) =
2. Add exponents n1 and n2
28 x 10-2 =
2.8 x 10-1

Division 8.5 x 104 ÷ 5.0 x 109 =

1. Divide N1 and N2 (8.5 ÷ 5.0) x 104-9 =
1.7 x 10-5
2. Subtract exponents n1 and n2
Significant Figures
• Any digit that is not zero is significant
1.234 kg 4 significant figures
• Zeros between nonzero digits are significant
606 m 3 significant figures
• Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit are not significant
0.08 L 1 significant figure
• If a number is greater than 1, then all zeros to the right of the decimal
point are significant
2.0 mg 2 significant figures
• If a number is less than 1, then only the zeros that are at the end and in
the middle of the number are significant
0.00420 g 3 significant figures
Example
Determine the number of significant figures in the following
measurements:
(a) 478 cm 3, each digit is a nonzero digit.

(b) 6.01 g 3, zeros between nonzero digits are significant.

(c) 0.825 m  3, zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit do not
count as significant figures.
(d) 0.043 kg  2, same reason as in (c).

(e) 1.310 × 1022 atoms  4, the number is greater than one so all the
zeros written to the right of the decimal point
count as significant figures.
 This is an ambiguous case. The number of significant
(f) 7000 mL figures may be four (7.000 × 103), three (7.00 × 103),
two (7.0 × 103), or one (7 × 103).
EXAMPLE
How many significant figures are in each of the following
measurements?

24 mL 2 significant figures

3001 g 4 significant figures

0.0320 m3 3 significant figures

6.4 x 104 molecules 2 significant figures

560 kg 2 significant figures

Significant Figures
Addition or Subtraction
The answer cannot have more digits to the right of the decimal
point than any of the original numbers.
89.332
+ 1.1 one significant figure after decimal point
90.432 round off to 90.4

3.70 two significant figures after decimal point

-2.9133
0.7867 round off to 0.79
Significant Figures
Multiplication or Division
The number of significant figures in the result is set by the original
number that has the smallest number of significant figures

4.51 x 3.6666 = 16.536366 = 16.5

3 sig figs round to

3 sig figs

6.8 ÷ 112.04 = 0.0606926 = 0.061

2 sig figs round to

2 sig figs
Rounding Off Numbers
In rounding off numbers, look at the leftmost digit to
be removed:
If the leftmost digit removed is less than 5, the
preeceding number is left unchanged.
7.248 to two significant figures gives 7.2.
If the leftmost digit removed is 5 or greater, the
preeceding number is increased by 1.
4.735 to three significant figures gives 4.74
2.376 to two significant figures gives 2.4.
Significant Figures
Exact Numbers
Numbers from definitions or numbers of objects are considered
to have an infinite number of significant figures

The average of three measured lengths; 6.64, 6.68 and 6.70?

6.64 + 6.68 + 6.70

= 6.67333 = 6.67 =7
3

Because 3 is an exact number

Example
Carry out the following arithmetic operations to the correct
number of significant figures:

(a) 11,254.1 g + 0.1983 g

(b) 66.59 L − 3.113 L
(c) 8.16 m × 5.1355
(d) 0.0154 kg  88.3 mL
(e) 2.64 × 103 cm + 3.27 × 102 cm
Example
Solution In addition and subtraction, the number of decimal places
in the answer is determined by the number having the lowest
number of decimal places. In multiplication and division, the
significant number of the answer is determined by the number
having the smallest number of significant figures.

(a)

(b)
Example
(c)

(d)

(e) First we change 3.27 × 102 cm to 0.327 × 103 cm and then carry
out the addition (2.64 cm + 0.327 cm) × 103. Following the procedure
in (a), we find the answer is 2.97 × 103 cm.
Three scientists determine the mass of the same sample of FeCl3. Scientist A works in a field
laboratory and carries a portable balance for determining the sample mass, the balance can
determine masses to the nearest +/- 0.1 g. Scientist B has a better, but still somewhat crude
balance, which reports the mass to the nearest +/- 0.01 g. Scientist C has a balance, like the
analytical balances you will find in chemistry laboratories at WU, that can determine sample
masses to the nearest +/- 0.0001 g. If each scientist wants to indicate the total number of moles
of FeCl3 in the sample, how will each do this in a way that reflects the precision of the
instrumentation they are using? The three scientists all use the atomic masses suggested by
IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry), which are included in the table
below.

http://chp090.chemistry.wustl.edu/~coursedev/Online%20tutorials/SigFigs.htm
  19.0   18.99   18.9925
162.2051 (55.847+3 ∗35.4527) (55.847+3 ∗35.4527) (55.847+3 ∗35.4527)
Accuracy & Precision
Accuracy – how close a measurement is to the true value
Precision – how close a set of measurements are to each other

accurate precise not accurate

& but &
precise not accurate not precise
Dimensional Analysis
1. Determine which unit conversion factor(s) are needed
2. Carry units through calculation
3. If all units cancel except for the desired unit(s), then the
problem was solved correctly.

given quantity x conversion factor = desired quantity

desired unit
given unit x = desired unit
given unit
Dimensional Analysis
Example: How many mL are in 1.63 L?
Conversion Unit 1 L = 1000 mL

1000 mL Correct
1.63 L x = 1630 mL Units cancel eachother
1L

1L L2 Wrong
1.63 L x = 0.001630
1000 mL mL Units does not cancel
eachother
Dimensional Analysis
Example: The speed of a car is 2 miles per
minute. What is this speed in kilometers
per hour?

conversion units:
meters to miles 1 mi = 1609 m
seconds to hours 1 hour = 60 min

mi 1609 m 1 km 60 min km
2 x x x = 193.08
min 1 mi 1000 m 1 hour hour
Example
A person’s average daily intake of glucose (a form of sugar) is
0.0833 pound (lb). What is this mass in milligrams (mg)?
(1 lb = 453.6 g.)

Solution The sequence of conversions is

Using the following conversion factors

we obtain the answer in one step:

Example
Liquid nitrogen is obtained from liquefied air and is
used to prepare frozen goods and in low-
temperature research.
The density of the liquid at its boiling point (−196°C
or 77 K) is 0.808 g/cm3. Convert the density to
units of kg/m3. liquid nitrogen
Solution In Example 1.7 we saw that 1 cm3 = 1 ×10−6 m3. The
conversion factors are

Finally
Example
A modern pencil “lead” is actually composed primarily of
graphite, a form of carbon. Estimate the mass of the graphite
core in a standard No. 2 pencil before it is sharpened.
Strategy Assume that the pencil lead can be approximated as a
cylinder. Measurement of a typical unsharpened pencil gives a length
of about 18 cm (subtracting the length of the eraser head) and a
diameter of roughly 2 mm for the lead.
The volume of a cylinder V is given by where r is the radius
and l is the length.
Assuming that the lead is pure graphite, you can calculate the mass of
the lead from the volume using the density of graphite given in Table
1.4.
Example
Solution: Converting the diameter of the lead to units of cm
gives

which, along with the length of the lead, gives

Example
Rearranging Equation (1.1) gives

Check Rounding off the values used to calculate the volume of

the lead gives 3 × (0.1 cm)2 × 20 cm = 0.6 cm3.

Multiplying that volume by roughly 2 g/cm3 gives around 1 g,

which agrees with the value just calculated.