Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics is the study of the effects of work, heat, and energy on a system, and is the science
which studies the relationship between mechanical and thermal energies.
Mechanical work

Work can be done on or by a system in many ways. A gas may be compressed or allowed to expand
against a piston. A liquid may be stirred, and a solid may be pounded with a hammer. When a substance
or system expand or contracts, the work W done by the system can be related to the volume change of
the material.
Work is the amount of energy transferred by a force. Like energy, it is a scalar quantity, with SI units of
joules (J).
To explain this phenomenon, suppose a gas at a pressure P in a closed cylinder as shown in figure. A
movable piston of cross-sectional area A forms one end of the enclosure.

The gas exerts a force F=PA on the piston. So, the piston moves a distance Δx and the work
done by the gas is
ΔW=F Δx=P A Δx=PΔV (P=F/A)
Since A Δx=ΔV
The work done by the gas is:
ΔW= PΔV
If the initial and final volumes of the system denoted by Vi and Vf, then the work done is:
 W=P(Vf -Vi)

Here is a brief listing of a few kinds of processes:

 W is positive when work is done by the system.
W is negative when work is done on the system.
W=0 in an isochoric process ΔV=0

Example

Suppose amount of water vaporizes isobarically at atmospheric pressure (1.013 ×10 5 Pa). Its
volume in the liquid state is Vi = 1 cm3, and its volume in the vapor state is Vf =1671 cm3.
Find the work done in the expansion of the system?
Solution
W=P(Vf -Vi)
W= 1.013 ×105 Pa (1671×10-6 m3-1×10-6 m3) = 169 J
Example

A gas is compressed from 9.00 L to 2.00 L at a constant pressure of 0.800 atm. What is the
work done on the gas? (1 atm = 1.013 ×105 Pa, 1L= 0.001 m3).
Solution

W=P(Vf -Vi)
W= 0.800×1.013 ×105 Pa (2×0.001 m3- 9×0.001 m3) = -567.3 J
Example

A gas does work in an isobaric process at P =105 Pa. How much work is done by the gas if (a) Vi
=10-2 m3 and Vf =2.24×10-2 m3; (b) Vi = 2×10-2 m3 and Vf = 0.5×10-2 m3?
Example
(a) W = P (Vf – Vi) = (105) (2.24×10-2- 10-2) = 1240 J (expansion)
(b) W = P (Vf – Vi) = (105) (0.5×10-2- 2×10-2) = -1500 J (compressed)

Problem
A gas at a pressure of 10 atm. has a volume of 0.5 m 3. (a) If it is allowed to expand at a
constant pressure to a volume of 2 m3, how much work does it do? (b) If instead the gas is
compressed at constant pressure to a volume of 0.25 m3, how much work does it do?

First law of thermodynamics

Internal Energy
Internal energy (also called thermal energy) is the energy an object or substance is due to
the kinetic and potential energies associated with the random motions of all the particles
that make it up.
The hotter something is, the faster its molecules are moving or vibrating, and the higher its
temperature. Temperature is proportional to the average kinetic energy of the atoms or
molecules that make up a substance.
Internal Energy vs. Heat
The term heat refers is the energy that is transferred from one body or location due to a difference
in temperature. This is similar to the idea of work, which is the energy that is transferred from
one body to another due to forces that act between them. Heat is internal energy when it is
transferred between bodies.
Temperature vs. Internal Energy
Temperature and internal energy are related but not the same thing. Temperature is directly
proportional to the average molecular kinetic energy *. Note the word average is used, not total.
Internal energy depends on the amount (mass) of substance and the kinetic energy of the
molecules of the substance.
Temperature only depends on the molecules’ kinetic energy; it is independent of mass.
The change in internal energy of a system is equal to the heat added to the system
minus the work done by the system
ΔU = Uf - Ui = Q - W
 The internal energy is the sum of kinetic and potential energies of all molecules
in the substance.
 The internal energy U of most substances depends only on the temperature T and
pressure P. However, in ideal gases, U actually depends only on the temperature T.

U = 3/2 NKBT (for monatomic ideal gas)

where N is number of molecules and KB is Boltzmann constant.
  The quantity of heat (Q) is the quantity of energy transferred because of a temperature
difference.
 Q is positive if heat added to the system and is negative if heat taken from the system.
U = Q – W
 If U (change in internal energy) is positive, the internal energy is increased.
 If U is negative, the internal energy is decreased.
For full cycle, the change in internal energy is zero (U=0), in this case;

Q=W
Example
Find the change in internal energy of the system when (a) a system absorbs 2000 J of heat
and produces 500 J of work; (b) a system absorbs 1100 J of heat and 400 J of work is done
on it?
Solution
(a) U = Q – W
U = 2000 J – 500 J = 1500 J
(b) Since the work done on the system, so the work is negative
U = 1100 – (-400) = 1500 J
Example
A thermodynamic system undergoes a process in which its internal energy decreases by 500 J.If,
at the same time, 220 J of work is done on the system, what is the energy transferred to or
from it by heat?
 U = Q – W
-500 = Q - (-220)
Q = -720 J (Energy transferred from the system)
Human Metabolism
All living things require energy to sustain the life process. Green plants obtain their energy
directly from the sun through the process of photosynthesis. Plants such as mushrooms,
which do not utilize photosynthesis, as well as animal require food capable of providing
chemical energy. In all cases, living plants and animals operate within the constraints
described by thermodynamics.
All Living things from Bacteria to Humans Conduct Metabolism
Metabolism is the ability to acquire and use energy from the environment
Metabolic processes are all the chemical reactions that occur in cells, tissues, organs, and
organ systems.
The food we eat, (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and Nucleic Acids), are our only source of
energy for doing the biological work of cells.
suppose that in a time t, a person does an amount of mechanical work W and an
amount of heat Q will leave the body, the amount of energy needed to do this is given by
the first law of thermodynamics;

U = Q - W.
∆𝐔 ∆𝐐 ∆𝐖
Dividing by t, this gives the metabolic rate: = −
∆ 𝐭 ∆𝐭 ∆𝐭
The rate of change of internal energy can be measured
accurately by observing the rate at which a person uses
oxygen in converting food into energy and waste
materials.

Food + O2 ATP + Energy + Waste materials

Energy intake = total energy output (heat + work + energy storage)

About 55% of internal energy is lost as heat in this conversion. The remaining 45% is available
to do internal work in the body organs or to enable the muscles to contract and do work on
an external object.
For example:

(180 g) Glucose + (134.4 liters) O2 CO2+H2O+ 2870 kJ

Energy equivalent of Oxygen Energy content per unit mass

Is the ratio of the energy released to the It is the energy released divided by the
oxygen consumed. mass of the food.
For glucose = 2870/134.4 = 21.4 kJ litre -1 For glucose = 2870/180 = 15.9 kJ g-1
 The average energy content per unit mass of food and energy equivalent of Oxygen for a
typical diet.

Energy equivalent of Energy content per unit Food

Oxygen (kJ/litre) mass (kJ/g)

21.1 17.2 Carbohydrate

18.7 17.6 Protein
19.8 38.9 Fat
20.3 29.7 Ethanol
The average value of 20.2 kJ
20.2 litre -1
is used in converting
  measured Oxygen consumption rates
Standard
to rates of internal energy change.
For example, if a person consumes oxygen at the high rate of 100 litres h -1, the rate of internal
energy change U/t= 100 x 20.2 = 2020 kJ h-1 = 561 W. (1 W= Js-1)

Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)

All animals including humans use internal energy even while sleeping.
BMR is the rate of energy consumption while resting but awake.
or BMR is the minimum resting energy expenditures by an awake alert person
BMR is influence by age, gender, physical condition, body weight, and genes.
For 20-year old man BMR = 1.2 W kg-1 = 1700 kcal per day for 70 kg man
For 20-year old woman BMR = 1.1 W kg-1 = 1400 kcal per day for 60 kg woman
 Approximate metabolic rates per unit mass of 20-years old man during various activities
Metabolic rate Activity
1.1 Sleeping
1.2 Lying awake
1.5 Sitting Upright
2.6 Standing
4.3 Walking
Up to 7.6 Shivering
7.6 Bicycling
9.2 Shoveling
11 Swimming
When a person is performing an activity such as running up stairs or doing housework,
11 Lumbering
the metabolic rate increases.
15 Skiing
Example 18 Running

(a) How much internal energy is used by a 65-kg man when bicycling for 4 hours?
(b) If this energy is obtained by the metabolism of body fat, how much fat is used in this
period?
Solution
1 U
  7.6 W kg 1
(a) For bicycling m t
 - U = m x t x 7.6 = 65 × 4 × 60×60 ×7.6 = 7.1 × 106 J = 7100 kJ
(b) The mass of fat = energy release/energy content= 7100/38.9 = 182 g = 0.182 kg
This indicates that limiting food intake is a more practical way to decrease body weight
than exercises for most people.

The Efficiency of Food Utilization

Efficiency of a human using the chemical energy in food to do useful work can be defined as:
The ratio between the measured rate at which mechanical work is done to the actual
metabolic rate during the activity minus the basal metabolic rate.
 The efficiency e in percent is then:
∆𝑤
100
∆𝑡
e= %
∆U ∆U
|
∆t
−
∆ t basal |
Maximum efficiencies for physical work
Efficiency in Percent Activity
3 Shoveling in stooped posture
9 Weight lifting
13 Turning a heavy wheel
19 Climbing ladders
23 Climbing stairs
Example 7

A 20-year-old woman of mass 50 kg climbs a mountain 1000 m high in 4 hours. Her

metabolic rate per unit mass during this activity is 7 Wkg -1. (BMR=1.1 Wkg-1, g = 9.8 ms-2)
(a) What is the difference between her actual and basal metabolic rate?
(b) How much work is done in the climb?
(c) What is her efficiency?
Solution

(a) = (7-1.1) × 50= 295 W

 
(b) W = mgh = 50 × 9.8 ×1000 = 4.9 × 105 J
W/t= 4.9 × 105 /(4×60×60) = 34 W
 
(c)
 Thermal Properties of Matter

Heat capacity (C)

When an object is placed near or in contact with another object at a higher temp, heat ( energy ) is
transferred to the cooler object, and its temperature rises. The ratio of heat transferred to temperature
change is called the heat capacity

J/K

Thermal energy or heat may be transferred to a substance by doing work on the substance as for
example, by stirring a liquid or compressing a gas

Molar heat capacity (C)

Suppose an amount of heat ∆Q is transferred to n moles of a substance. According to the first law, the
internal energy will increase or the substance will do work, or possibly both will happen.
The ratio of the heat added to 1 mole of a substance to the temperature change is called the molar heat
capacity C.
J/mol.K
Specific heat capacity c

The amount of heat required to raise a certain mass of a material by a certain temperature. It
is related to the molar heat capacity C by; (molar heat capacity divided by mass of one mole)
 where, M is the mass of 1 mole and n is the number of moles then m = M n, is the mass of
the substance
The amount of heat energy (ΔQ) gained or lost by a substance = mass of substance (m) ×
specific heat capacity (c) × change in temperature (ΔT)
ΔQ = m × c × ΔT
If a substance has a higher heat capacity, then more heat has to be added to raise its
temperature.
Example 8

What is the heat required for 2 kg of aluminum to raise the temperature from 20 oC  to 100 oC. 
Specific heat of aluminum is 0.91 kJ/kgoC ?
Solution

ΔQ = m × c × ΔT
= (2kg) (0.91 kJ/kg oC) [100 oC - 20 oC] = 145.6 kJ
Example 9

How much energy would be needed to heat 450 g of copper metal from a temperature 25
o
C to 75 oC? (Specific heat of copper is 0.385 J/g.oC)
Solution
ΔQ = m × c × ΔT
ΔQ =450×0.385×(75-25)= 8700 J
 Example 10

How much heat energy is required to heat a 1.0 kg piece of copper pipe from 25 oC to 66 oC ?
(ccopper = 390 J/kg.oC)
Solution

Q=m×c×ΔT
Q=1.0×390×(66-25) = 15990J ≈ 16000 J
Example 11

A 0.50 kg block of iron at 80 oC is cooled by removing 2.28×104 J of heat energy. What will
the final temperature of the metal be? (ciron= 460 J/kg oC)
Solution
Given
Q= 2.28×104 J , m= 0.50 kg, T1= 80 oC, c= 460 J/kg oC, T2= ?
Q=m×c×ΔT=m×c×(T2-T1)
 
o
C
The word ''removing'' indicates that Q is negative
Example 12

A 0.1 kg of carbon at 15C in calorimeter, the container has a mass of 0.02 kg and is made of
Aluminium. The addition of 0.892 kJ of heat energy rises temperature to 28C. What is the
specific heat capacity of carbon (specific heat capacity of Al is 0.9 kJ/kg K)?
 Solution

The specific heat capacity of carbon is given by

ΔT= 28-15 = 13 oC
ΔQ = 0.892 kJ
m =0.1 kg, mc =0.02 kg, cc=0.9 kJ/kg K
 

Example 13

Compare the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature 25 oC of 1 kg of water
and 1 kg of iron 20oC? (cwater= 1 cal/g oC, ciron= 0.107 cal/g oC).
Solution
Q = m c ΔT
for water
Q= (1000g)(1 cal/g oC)(2 0 oC)=20000 cal
for Iron
Q=(1000 g)(0.107 cal/g oC)(20 oC)= 2140 cal
Quiz
Water has a specific heat of 1 cal/g.K and iron has a specific heat of 0.107 cal/g.K. If we add the
same amount of heat to equal masses of iron and water, which will have the larger change in
temperature?
a. The iron.
b. They will have equal changes since the same amount of heat is added to each.
c. The Water.
d. None of the above
 Phase Change

Most substances can exist in solid, liquid, or gas phase. The

transition from one phase to another is called phase
change.
When a substance changes phases (liquid  solid or gas
 liquid) energy is transferred without a change in
temperature.
The figure shows the phase diagram of water.
Phase diagrams plot pressure versus temperature.

Triple point is the point on a phase diagram at which the three states of matter: gas, liquid,
and solid coexist.
Critical point is the point on a phase diagram at which the substance is indistinguishable
between liquid and gaseous states (a kilogram of liquid and kilogram of gas have the same
volume).
At standard pressure as temperature increases, most substances
change from solid to liquid to gas, and at standard temperature
as pressure increases, most substances change from gas to liquid to solid.
The figure shows the temperature of a sample of water versus
time.
As more heat is added, the temperature rises until point B.
Now, as more heat is added, the temperature does not rise
and the ice gradually melts into water, and the temperature
remains constant until all the ice is melted. temperature remains constant until all the ice is
melted.
The figure shows the temperature of a sample of water versus time.
As more heat is added, the temperature rises until point B.
Now, as more heat is added, the temperature does not rise and the ice gradually melts into
water, and the temperature remains constant until all the ice is melted.
The temperature is constant at the phase change because the heat is consumed in breaking the bonds between
atoms.

Latent heat L
The amount of energy per unit mass that must be transferred as heat when a sample
completely undergoes a phase change is called the latent heat.
Or it is the energy absorbed or liberated in a phase change.
When a sample of mass m completely undergoes a phase change, the total energy
transferred is:
ΔQ = mL
Example 14

How much heat is required to melt 5 g of solid gold at 1063C? (Lf = 6440 J / kg)
Solution
ΔQ = mL= 0.005×6440=32 J
The liquid gold will still be at 1063 ºC.
Example 15

A 10 g ice cube at 0 ºC falls to the ground and melts. The temperature outside is 10 ºC.
Calculate the energy absorbed by the ice from the surroundings? (Lf = 3.33 ×105 J/kg)
Solution
ΔQ = mL= 0.010×3.33 ×105 =3330 J

Deposition is the transition from gas to solid.

Freezing is the transition from liquid to solid.
Condensation is the transition from gas to liquid.
Sublimation is the transition from solid to gas at sublimation point.
Fusion (melting) is the transition from solid to liquid at melting point.
Vaporization is the transition from liquid to gas at vaporization point.
 Heat Transfer

Heat Transfer always occurs from regions of higher to that of lower temperature, so that two
objects insulated from their surroundings gradually approach a common temperature.

Conduction

Conduction: Energy is transferred when two objects are in direct contact. Heat transfer through solids
occurs by conduction.
When two objects at temperatures T1 and T2 are connected by a rod of area ‘A’ and length ‘L’, Their
temperature difference ∆T = T2 - T1 will be decreased.

Thus the rate at which heat flows from the hotter to the colder object must be
proportional to:
 The cross sectional area A.
 Temperature gradient ∆T/l.
The heat flow rate, H = ∆Q/∆t which has a unit of jouls/second or “Watt”
can be written in the form: ∆𝑻
𝑯=𝒌𝑨
𝑳
Where K is, the thermal conductivity constant (W m-1 k-1)
The metals are good thermal conductors. Their conductivities are greater by factors of 10 3 or
104 than those of thermal insulators such as wood.
Substances Thermal conductivity constant k (Wm-1k-1)

Copper 400
Aluminum 240
Steel 79
Glass 0.8
Animal muscle, fat 0.2
Example 16
Wood 0.08
A person walking at modest speed generates heat at a rate of 280 W. If the surface area of
Air 0.024
the body is 1.5 m2 and if the heat is assumed to be generated 0.03 m below the skin, what
temperature difference between the skin and the interior of the body (assume thermal
conductivity of the skin is equal to 0.2 Wm-1k-1)?
Solution
The heat flow rate due to conduction is

Example 17

A glass window pane has an area of 3.00 m2 and a thickness of 0.600 cm. If the temperature
difference between its surfaces is 25.0°C, what is the rate of energy transfer by conduction
through the window? (Kglass=0.8 Wm-1k-1).
Solution

Convection

Energy is transferred from one body to a cooler one via currents in a fluid (a gas or liquid).

As shown in the figure, convection can lead to circulation in a liquid, as in the heating of a
pot of water over a flame. The liquid near the heat source is heated and expands slightly,
becoming lighter than the overlying cooler fluid. It then rises and is replaced by cooler,
heavier fluid.
Convection also explains how an electric heater placed on the floor of a cold room warms up
the air in the room. Air present near the coils of the heater warm up. As the air warms up, it
expands, becomes less dense and begins to rise. As the hot air rises, it pushes some of the
cold air near the top of the room out of the way. The cold air moves towards the bottom of
the room to replace the hot air that has risen. As the colder air approaches the heater at the
bottom of the room, it becomes warmed by the heater and begins to rise. Once more,
convection currents are slowly formed. Air travels along these pathways, carrying energy
with it from the heater throughout the room.
In still air, the rate convective heat transfer for a surface area A is given approximately by the
empirical formula.
H = q A ΔT (Watt)
Where ∆T is the temperature difference between the surface and the air distant from the
surface. q (The convective heat transfer constant) is constant depends on the shape and
orientation of the transfer constant and has a dimension of Wm -2k-1.
Example 18

A fluid flows over a plane surface 1m×1m. The surface temperature is 50oC, the fluid
temperature is 20oC and the convective heat transfer coefficient is 2000 W/m2 oC. What is
the convective heat transfer between the hotter surface and the colder air?
Solution
H = q A ΔT
H=2000×1×1× (50-20) = 60000W = 60 kW
Example 19

In a Warm room, a person has a skin temperature of 34 oC. If the room temperature is 30 oC
and the body surface area is 1.5 m2, what is the rate of heat loss, due to convection? (q =
7.1 W m-2 K-1).
Solution

H = q A ΔT
H=7.1×1.5× (34-30) = 42.6 W
 Radiation

Conduction and convection require the presence of some material (solid, liquid or gas).
Radiation is the transfer of heat by means of electromagnetic waves emission.

Because the mechanism of transmission is photon emission, unlike conduction and

convection, there need be no intermediate matter to enable transmission. The significance
of this is that radiation will be the only mechanism for heat transfer whenever a vacuum is
present.
The energy is carried by electromagnetic waves and does not involve the movement or the
interaction of matter. Thermal radiation can occur through matter or through a region of
space that is void of matter (i.e., a vacuum). In fact, the heat received on Earth from the sun
is the result of electromagnetic waves traveling through the void of space between the Earth
and the sun.
The electromagnetic waves travel with the speed of light C, and characterized by wavelength
λ and frequency F, where
C=λF
Every object at a non-zero temperature emits some radiation at all wavelengths. However the
amount of energy radiated at each wavelength depends on the temperature (as in figure)
 Visible radiation Infrared radiation

At any given wavelength, the black body monochromatic emissive power increases with
temperature.
The wavelength λmax at which is a maximum decreases as the temperature increases.
The wavelength at which the radiation is most intense is given by the Wien displacement
law,

where the constant B has a numerical value of 2.898 × 10 -3 m.k

 Example 20: The sun has a surface temperature of 6000 k. What is the wavelength of
maximum radiation? (B =2.898 × 10-3 mk).
Solution: (visible light)

Example 21: For a green house of 300 k temperature, what is the wavelength of
maximum radiation? (B =2.898 × 10-3 mk)
Solution: (infrared)

The rate at which an object radiates energy is proportional to the fourth power of its
absolute temperature. This is known as Stefan’s law and is expressed in equation form as
H = eσAT4
where H is the power in watts radiated by the object, σ is a constant equal to 5.67 × 10-8
W/m2.K4, A is the surface area of the object in square meters, e is the emissivity constant,
and T is the surface temperature in Kelvins. The value of e can vary between zero and unity,
depending on the properties of the surface of the object. The emissivity is equal to the
fraction of the incoming radiation that the surface absorbs
What happens to the atmospheric temperature at night is another example of the effects
of energy transfer by radiation. If there is a cloud cover above the Earth, the water vapor in
the clouds absorbs part of the infrared radiation emitted by the Earth and re-emits it back
to the surface.
Consequently, temperature levels at the surface remain moderate. In the absence of this
cloud cover, there is nothing to prevent this radiation from escaping into space; thus the
temperature decreases more on a clear night than on a cloudy one.
When an object is in equilibrium with its surroundings, it radiates and absorbs energy at
the same rate, and so its temperature remains constant. When an object is hotter than its
surroundings, it radiates more energy than it absorbs, and its temperature decreases.
An ideal absorber is defined as an object that absorbs all the energy incident on it, and for
such a body, e = 1.
Such an object is often referred to as a black body.
The characteristics of a blackbody are:
• It is a perfect emitter.
• At any prescribed temperature it has the highest monochromatic emissive power at all
wave lengths.
• A blackbody absorbs all the incident energy and therefore e = 1.
• It is non reflective body.
• It is opaque.
• An ideal absorber is also an ideal radiator of energy.
• Such an object reflects all the incident energy, and thus is an ideal reflector.
• The darkest human skin has e (0.82) greater than that of the lightest skin (0.65) for
visible light.
• If an object is at a temperature T and its surroundings are at a temperature T0, then the
net energy gained or lost each second by the object as a result of radiation is
H= σ A e (T4-T04)
Example 22

A student is trying to decide what to wear. The surroundings (his bedroom) are at 20.0°C. If
the skin temperature of the unclothed student is 35°C, what is the net energy loss from his
body by radiation? Assume that the emissivity of skin is 0.900 and that the surface area of
the student is 1.50 m2, s= 5.67 × 10-8 W/m2.K4
Solution

We find that the net rate of energy loss from the skin is
H = e A s (T4- T04) 
= (5.67 × 10-8 W/m2.K4)(1.50 m2)(0.900)[(308K)4 - (293K)4]= 125 W
Example 23

Calculate the net heat transfer by radiation to a loaf of bread in an oven at a uniform
temperature of 177°C, if the emissivity of the surface of the loaf is 0.85 and the total
surface area and temperature of the loaf are respectively 0.0645 m 2 and 100°C, and σ =
5.67 × 10-8 W/m2.K4
                    H = e A s (T4- T04) 
                       = 0.85× 0.0645 × 5.67 × 10-8 (4504- 3734) = 68.3 W
 HEAT AND COLD IN THERAPY
While it was recognized several thousand years ago that hot paths were therapeutic, it was
not until the raid J800 s that the pain-relieving properties of heat somewhat understood.
Heating of a biological tissue results in the increase in metabolic activity which results in a
relaxation of the capillary system (vasodilatation). Moreover, this increase in tissue
temperature increases the blood flow and also increases cell membrane permeability and
fluidity and hence leads to the increase of cellular metabolism and cell to cell
communication. The increase in tissue temperature accelerates the chemical changes i.e.
metabolism. As a result of this increase in metabolism there is an increased demand of
oxygen and food stuffs.
However excessive heating of tissue causes reddening (erythema) and sometimes swelling
(edema). Very prolonged heating of tissue causes browning and hardening of the skin.
There are different methods applied for heating tissue, namely, short waves, microwaves,
infrared, Ultraviolet and ultrasonic.
Short wave diathermy
The short waves used in this technique are in the frequency range 10 7 to 108 Hz. The
commonly used frequency for medical work is around 27.12 MHz.
In this technique a high frequency oscillator which generates sine waves, the output of
this oscillator is inducted to the patient circuit through an output transformer as shown
in figure 2. The patient circuit consists of a parallel plate capacitor (when a condenser
field method is used) coupled to the output transformer. When short wave diathermy is
applied the electrodes of the condenser and the patients tissues (which is considered to
be dielectric material) from a capacitor.
Figure 2. Illustrates a schematic diagram for the short wave diathermy technique. The capacitance" of the
condenser depends on the area of the electrodes, and the distance and the value of the dielectric constant K
between them. The capacitance (C) inductance (L) patient circuit is varied at each treatment,. The frequency
of the machine circuit is varied by the physiotherapist (new machines have automatic tuning) i.e. tuned till
resonance is reached between the frequency of the machine circuit (f) and the LC patient circuit. This
condition is satisfied when

At this resonance frequency maximum current passes in the patient circuit and heating of the
tissue occurs. In most machines, light indicator lamp or an ammeter is connected in the patient
circuit to indicate that resonance is reached.
In some cases, the cable method is used in which the capacitance is replaced by an
inductance cable as shown in figure 3

Figure 3

A Cable technique is applied to the lower limb. Capacitance technique for heating the ankle
The beating mechanism of a biological tissue by short waves differs from other heat
treatments. In the body, the tissue fluids are electrolytes, proteins and fats. As the
frequency of the short wave diathermy current is high the result is vibration of the
electric dipoles. This can be only achieved when the relaxation time t of the polar
molecules (such as protein molecule or electrolyze) is equal to the periodic time of the
applied short wave (T=1/f). At the resonance frequency the molecules of the electrolyte
and the polar groups gain energy which causes the increase of the amplitude of their
rotational and vibrational motion. This increase of the internal energies of the molecules
will lead to the rise in tissue temperature.
Heating by short waves using capacitance technique is due to oscillating electric fields
while heating by short waves using the cable method is by the induced magnetic field in
addition to the electric field. Maximum heating of the tissue is achieved when the
number of lines of forces per unit area cutting the tissue is maximum. The use of short
wave diathermy has been proved to treat successfully many cases. However, recent
research found certain limitations for the medical uses of short wave. These limitations
are summarized in the fact that short waves can be promoters for cancer. Recently
western countries- are not using short wave diathermy because of this reason.
It is desirable in the first instance to have field strength measurements carried out by
competent person in the vicinity of the short wave equipment. This will permit a proper
assessment of the safety implications of procedures which may be carried out. Staff
operating the unit should receive sufficient instructions to enable them to use the
equipment property and to understand the nature of the hazards involved.
The physiotherapists should know that a portion of the energy is radiated into the
surrounding space and can be of considerable harm to them. This is due to the
accumulative dose they receive daily. Therefore, care should be taken to ensure that as
great a distance as possible between operating shortwave therapy apparatus and
physiotherapist. The apparatus should be connected to good earthing to prevent is contact
electric shocks. It is also recommended surround the apparatus and patient area with an
electric shield from a good earthed wire gauze of metallic conductor with two meters in
height to minimize the intensity of the scattered radiation.
Heating By Ultrasonic Waves
Ultrasonic waves are also used for deep heating of a body tissue. These waves are
completely different from the electromagnetic waves just discussed. They are similar to
sound waves but with higher frequencies than hearing volume. They require a medium for
their transmission and cannot cross a vacuum in the way electromagnetic waves can.
Propagation of the sound waves depends on the transmission of energy from particle to
particle. Sound waves are traveling pressure waves in the medium which cause an
alternate compression and rarefaction of the particles in the medium. They produce
mechanical motion like audible sound waves except the frequency is much higher (usually
near 1 MHz). The velocity of sound waves in some media are; air 344 ms -1 , water 1410 ms-
1
, Muscle 1540 ms-1
Questions:
• A gas balloon absorbs 75 J of heat. The balloon expands, but stays at the same
temperature. How much work did the balloon do in expanding?
• When wax freezes, does it absorb or release energy?
• What is the name of an ideal-gas process in which no heat is transferred?
a. Isochoric
b. Isothermal
c. Isobaric
d. Adiabatic
• What quantities appear in the first law of thermodynamics?
a. force, mass, acceleration b. work, heat, internal energy
b. work, heat, entropy d. enthalpy, entropy, heat
• Heat is
a. the amount of thermal energy in an object.
b. the energy that moves from a hotter object to a colder object.
c. a fluid-like substance that flows from a hotter object to a colder object.
d. both A and B.
E both B and C
• A gas cylinder and piston are covered with heavy insulation. The piston is pushed into
the cylinder, compressing the gas. In this process, the gas temperature
a. decreases. B. increases.
b. doesn’t change. D. There’s not sufficient information to tell.
• Gas in a container is at a pressure of 1.50 atm and a volume of 4.00 m 3. What is the
work done by the gas (a) if it expands at constant pressure to twice its initial volume?
(b) If it is compressed at constant pressure to one quarter of its initial volume?
• A gas is compressed from 9.00 L to 2.00 L at a constant pressure of 0.800 atm. In the
process, 400 J of energy leaves the gas by heat. (a) What is the work done by the gas?
(b) What is the change in its internal energy?
• The amount of heat (Q) added into a body of mass m to change its temperature an
amount T is given by……………..
• Three mechanisms for heat transfer: ………, ………… and ……
• The unit of specific heat capacity is…………
• Radiation is the transfer of heat via ………….
• ……….. is the transfer of heat through materials by the direct contact of matter.
• ………. is the transfer of heat by the motion of liquids and gases.
• Which is the best surface for reflecting heat radiation?
a. Shiny white b. Dull white
c. Shiny black d. Dull black
• Which is the best surface for absorbing heat radiation?
a. Shiny white b. Dull white
d. Shiny black c. Dull black
• How does heat energy reach the Earth from the Sun?
a. Radiation b. Conduction
d. Convection c. Insulation
• Which of the following is not a method of heat transfer?
a. Radiation c. Insulation
b. Conduction d. Convection
• The specific heat of silicon is 703 J / (kg.ºC). How much energy is needed to raise a 7
kg chunk of silicon 10 ºC?
• Calculate the heat transfer through 0.2 m thick industrial furnace wall made of fireclay
brick. The wall temperatures inside and outside the furnace are 1500 and 1100 K
respectively. The length of the wall is 1.2 m and the height is 1 m. (k for fireclay brick =
1.7 W/m.K)
• What is the heat flow through a brick wall area 10 m2, thickness 0.2 m, k= 0.1 W/m.K
with a surface temperature on one side of 20oC and 10oC on the other?
a. 50 watts c. 50 Joules
b. 50 Watts/m2 d. 200 Watts
e. 200 Watts/m2
• Which of these statements is not true?
a. conduction can occur in liquids
b. conduction only occurs in solids
c. Thermal radiation can travel through empty space
d. Convection cannot occur in solids
e. Gases do not absorb thermal radiation
• A good insulator has:
a. a large value of k b. a small value of k
c. an infinite value of k d. zero value of k
• How much heat is absorbed by 60.0 g of copper when its temperature is raised from
20.0°C to 80.0°C? (c= 385 J/kg.°C)
• The cooling system of a car engine contains 20.0 L of water (1 L of water has a mass
of 1 kg). What is the change in the temperature of the water if the engine operates
until 836.0 kJ of heat are added? (c = 4180 J/kg.°C).
• How much heat is absorbed by 1.0×102 g of ice at –20.0°C to become water at 0.0°C?
(c= 2060 J/kg.°C)
• How much heat is needed to raise the temperature of 50.0 g of water from 4.5°C to
83.0°C? (c= 4180 J/kg. °C)
• A 5.0×102 g block of metal absorbs 5016 J of heat when its temperature changes
from 20.0°C to 30.0°C. Calculate the specific heat of the metal.
• Years ago, a block of ice with a mass of about 20.0 kg was used daily in a home
icebox. The temperature of the ice was 0.0°C when delivered. As it melted, how
much heat did a block of ice that size absorb? (L= 3.34×105 J/kg).
• Suppose you are an astronaut in space, hard at work in your sealed spacesuit. The
only way that you can transfer excess heat to the environment is by
a. conduction
b. radiation
c. convection
d. evaporation