HIGH AIRSPEED INDICATOR

(COMPRESSIBLE FLOW)
ERRORS ARISING FROM USE OF PITOT STATIC TUBE

When a pitot static tube is used in combination with a airspeed indicator to measure the
airspeed indicator to measure the airspeed of an airplane, there are several sources of error for
which allowance must be made. The most important of these are as follows:

1. POSITION ERROR. For best results the pitot static tube should be parallel to the
undisturbed stream. Since the attitude of an airplane does not remain constant relative to
the undisturbed airstream, it is not possible to fulfill these requirements. Furthermore, the
airflow past the pitot static tube may be influenced by proximity of the parts of the
airplane, such as the wings.
The error arising from those factors is known as position error and correction must be
obtained for all airplane.
2. INSTRUMENT ERROR. This is an error arising in the graduation of the airspeed
indicator dial, and its instrument is calibrated against a standard to provide the necessary
corrections
 

Speed, mph 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Error, % 0.444 1.0 1.77 2.78 4.0 5.44 7.11 9.0
 
THE VARIOUS CORRECTIONS ARE DISCUSSED IN THE FOLLOWING

 
THE VARIOUS CORRECTIONS ARE DISCUSSED IN THE FOLLOWING
 

 
THE VARIOUS CORRECTIONS ARE DISCUSSED IN THE FOLLOWING
From
 

 
THE VARIOUS CORRECTIONS ARE DISCUSSED IN THE FOLLOWING
Differentiating,
 

 
THE VARIOUS CORRECTIONS ARE DISCUSSED IN THE FOLLOWING
Therefore,
 

   

For Air = 1.4

 
THE VARIOUS CORRECTIONS ARE DISCUSSED IN THE FOLLOWING
 

   

   
THE VARIOUS CORRECTIONS ARE DISCUSSED IN THE FOLLOWING
 

 
 

   

 
THE VARIOUS CORRECTIONS ARE DISCUSSED IN THE FOLLOWING
 

 
PROBLEM SOLVING
1. An aircraft is flying at 120 knots at an altitude where the temp is
480 deg R. Determine the airspeed equivalent indicator reading and
the pressure difference between total and static pressure.
2. A high speed aircraft is flying at an altitude of 20,000ft with an
airspeed calibrated indicator reading of 600 mi/hr. What will be its
mach meter indicator at its current flight setting.
PROBLEM SOLVING
1. An aircraft is flying at 120 knots at an altitude where the temp is
480 deg R. Determine the airspeed equivalent indicator reading and
the pressure difference between total and static pressure.
2. A high speed aircraft is flying at an altitude of 20,000ft with an
airspeed calibrated indicator reading of 600 mi/hr. What will be its
mach meter indicator at its current flight setting.
VISCOUS EFFECTS, THE
BOUNDARY LAYER AND
FLOW SEPARATION
VISCOUS EFFECTS, THE BOUNDARY LAYER AND FLOW SEPARATION

Skin Friction

Skin friction is air resistance, and it is the tangential component of force on the surface of a body due to the friction
between the two particles

Skin friction is illustrated in the figure above. A thin, flat plate is held edgewise to an airstream. The particles of air
separate at a leading edge and flows smoothly over the upper surface and under the lower surface, reuniting behind
the trailing edge. The resistance of skin friction is caused by the particles of air tending to cling to the surface of the
plate.

First, the plate has a certain amount of roughness. To eliminate skin friction altogether it would be necessary to
have all the molecules of the material in perfect alignment on the surface of the material.

The second reason why air tends to cling to the surface of the plate because of the viscosity of air. Technically,
viscosity is the resistance offered by a fluid to the relative motion of its particles, but in the common use of the
term, it means the adhesive, or sticky characteristic of fluid.
VISCOUS EFFECTS, THE BOUNDARY LAYER AND FLOW SEPARATION

STREAMLINE AND TURBULENT FLOW

A streamline may be defined as a non-turbulent flow. A turbulent flow is defined as a flow characterized by
turbulence, that is, a flow which the velocity, varies erratically in a both magnitude and direction with time.

LAMINAR FLOW
The word “laminar” is derived from the Latin word “lamina”, meaning a thin plate of metal or some other material.
Laminar flow employs the concept that air is flowing in thin sheets or layers the concept to the surface of the wing
with no disturbance between the layers of the air.

BOUNDARY LAYER
The boundary layer is that air adjacent to the airfoil shape. The cause of the boundary layer is the friction between
the surface of the wing and the air.
VISCOUS EFFECTS, THE BOUNDARY LAYER AND FLOW SEPARATION
VISCOUS EFFECTS, THE BOUNDARY LAYER AND FLOW SEPARATION

TWO TYPES OF BOUNDARY LAYER

a) Laminar Boundary Layer

In the laminar boundary layer, the flow is steady and smooth. As a result, the layer is very thin, and the form drag is
very small. Also the velocity gradient at the walls, through large enough to give significant viscous stress, is yet
only moderate, so that the skin friction, though not negligible, is also very small

b) Turbulent Boundary Layer

In turbulent boundary layer, the flow is unsteady and not smooth but eddying.
VISCOUS EFFECTS, THE BOUNDARY LAYER AND FLOW SEPARATION

VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION BETWEEN TWO PLATES

 
VISCOUS EFFECTS, THE BOUNDARY LAYER AND FLOW SEPARATION

 
VISCOUS EFFECTS, THE BOUNDARY LAYER AND FLOW SEPARATION
 
 VISCOUS EFFECTS, THE BOUNDARY LAYER AND FLOW SEPARATION
VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION BETWEEN TWO PLATES

 
 VISCOUS EFFECTS, THE BOUNDARY LAYER AND FLOW SEPARATION
VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION BETWEEN TWO PLATES

 
 VISCOUS EFFECTS, THE BOUNDARY LAYER AND FLOW SEPARATION
VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION BETWEEN TWO PLATES

 
VISCOUS EFFECTS, THE BOUNDARY LAYER AND FLOW SEPARATION

PROBLEM SOLVING 1

A flat plate of 10 ft span and 6ft chord is placed in an airstream of 100 mph under standard sea level conditions. If
the transition Reynold’s Number is 10^6, calculate the total skin friction drag.

PROBLEM SOLVING 2
Two flat plates, one having 6 ft span and 3 ft chord, the other having a 9 ft span and 6 ft chord, are placed in
different airstream. The freestream velocity for the smaller plate is 100 ft/s. It is found that the total skin friction
drag for the two plates is the same. Find the airspeed for the larger. Assume laminar flow is at SSLC.
VISCOUS EFFECTS, THE BOUNDARY LAYER AND FLOW SEPARATION

PROBLEM SOLVING 1

A flat plate of 10 ft span and 6ft chord is placed in an airstream of 100 mph under standard sea level conditions. If
the transition Reynold’s Number is 10^6, calculate the total skin friction drag.

PROBLEM SOLVING 2
Two flat plates, one having 6 ft span and 3 ft chord, the other having a 9 ft span and 6 ft chord, are placed in
different airstream. The freestream velocity for the smaller plate is 100 ft/s. It is found that the total skin friction
drag for the two plates is the same. Find the airspeed for the larger. Assume laminar flow is at SSLC.
The Kutta-Joukowski
Theorem
FLOW ABOUT A CIRCULAR CYLINDER
 

  STAGNATION POINT

Fig. 1 – Flow around a circular cylinder

FLOW ABOUT A CIRCULAR CYLINDER
FLOW ABOUT A CIRCULAR CYLINDER
 

   

 
LIFT DUE TO CIRCULATION

 
LIFT DUE TO CIRCULATION
By incompressible Bernoulli’s Equation
 

 
LIFT DUE TO CIRCULATION
By incompressible Bernoulli’s Equation

   
 

 
LIFT DUE TO CIRCULATION
 

 
PROBLEM SOLVING

1. A cylinder 30 in. in diameter rotates in an airstream of 70 mph. It develops 40 lb of lift per foot of
length, what is the rotational speed?

2. A cylinder 1.22 m in diameter and 3.5 m long is rotating at 100 rpm in an airstream of 18 m/s.
Determine the total lift of the cylinder at standard sea level conditions.
PROBLEM SOLVING

1. A cylinder 30 in. in diameter rotates in an airstream of 70 mph. It develops 40 lb of lift per foot of
length, what is the rotational speed?

2. A cylinder 1.22 m in diameter and 3.5 m long is rotating at 100 rpm in an airstream of 18 m/s.
Determine the total lift of the cylinder at standard sea level conditions.
AIRFOIL GEOMETRY
AND CONSTRUCTION
AIRFOIL GEOMETRY AND CONSTRUCTION
AIRFOIL GEOMETRY AND CONSTRUCTION
MEAN CAMBER LINE

Line joining the mid points between the upper and lower surfaces of an airfoil and measured perpendicular to the
mean camber line.

CHORD LINE
Straight line which joins the end points of the mean camber line.

THICKNESS
Is the height of an airfoil measured normal to the chord line. The ratio of the maximum thickness to the chord
length is called thickness ratio.

CAMBER
Maximum distance of the mean line from the chord line.

LEADING EDGE RADIUS

Radius of a circle which is tangent to the upper and lower surfaces. The center of this circle is located on a
tangent to the mean line drawn through the leading edge of this line.
AIRFOIL GEOMETRY AND CONSTRUCTION
 Examples of NACA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) Designation

4 SERIES AIRFOIL: EXAMPLE NACA 4412

4 – maximum camber 0.04c (c = chord)
4 – position of maximum camber at 0.4c from leading edge (LE)
12 – maximum thickness 0.12c

5 SERIES AIRFOIL: EXAMPLE NACA 23015

2 – maximum camber 0.02c
– the design lift coefficient is 0.15 times the first digit for this series ( = 0.15 (first digit))
30 – position of maximum camber at (0.30/2) = 0.15c from leading edge (LE)
15 – maximum thickness 0.15c
AIRFOIL GEOMETRY AND CONSTRUCTION
Examples of NACA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) Designation

6 SERIES AIRFOIL: EXAMPLE NACA 653-421

6 – series designation
5 – Minimum pressure occurs at 0.5c from LE
3 – the drag coefficient is near its minimum value over a range of lift coefficient of 0.3 above and below the design lift
coefficient
4 – design lift coefficient is 0.4
21 – maximum thickness is 0.21c

7 SERIES AIRFOIL: EXAMPLE NACA 747A315

7 – series designation
4 – favorable pressure gradient (minimum pressure) on the upper surface from LE to 0.4c at the design lift coefficient
7 – favorable pressure gradient on the lower surface from LE to 0.7c at the design lift coefficient
A – a serial letter to distinguish different sections having the same designation but different mean line or thickness
3 – design lift coefficient 0.3
15 – max thickness 0.15c
EXAMPLE 1

AIRFOIL PROFILE: NACA 2214

Chord c = 110 cm

Required:
(a) Camber
(b) Position at camber
(c) Maximum thickness

EXAMPLE 2
Airfoil profile: NACA 23018
Chord, c = 110 cm

Required:
(d) Camber
(e) Position of camber
(f) Coefficient of lift
(g) Maximum thickness
EXAMPLE 1

AIRFOIL PROFILE: NACA 2214

Chord c = 110 cm

Required:
(a) Camber
(b) Position at camber
(c) Maximum thickness

EXAMPLE 2
Airfoil profile: NACA 23018
Chord, c = 110 cm

Required:
(d) Camber
(e) Position of camber
(f) Coefficient of lift
(g) Maximum thickness
AERODYNAMIC FORCES AND
MOMENTS ON AN AIRFOIL
AERODYNAMIC FORCES AND MOMENTS ON AN AIRFOIL
AERODYNAMIC FORCES AND MOMENTS ON AN AIRFOIL
When an airfoil is placed in a moving stream of air, an aerodynamic force acting on it will be created.
Experimentally, this force (f) has been found to depend on the following variables:
1. Velocity of air, V
2. Air density, ⍴
3. Characteristic area or size, S
4. Coefficient of dynamic viscosity, μ
5. Speed of sound (compressibility effect), Va
6. Angle of attack, α
AERODYNAMIC FORCES AND MOMENTS ON AN AIRFOIL
AERODYNAMIC FORCES AND MOMENTS ON AN AIRFOIL
 
AERODYNAMIC FORCES AND MOMENTS ON AN AIRFOIL
 
AERODYNAMIC FORCES AND MOMENTS ON AN AIRFOIL
 

 
AERODYNAMIC FORCES AND MOMENTS ON AN AIRFOIL
 

 
AERODYNAMIC FORCES AND MOMENTS ON AN AIRFOIL
 

 
PROBLEM SOLVING
An airfoil has a lift curve slope at 6.3/rad and angle at zero lift of -2deg. At what angle of attack will the
airfoil develop a lift of 140 lbs/ft at 100 mph under SSLC? Assume c = 8ft.

PROBLEM NO. 2
The aircraft is flying at a velocity of 50 m/s, at an altitude of 5000 m. Determine the lift/span created by
the rectangular wing, with chord of 2.5 m, and a span of 12 m. The airfoil is flying at an angle of attack
of 4 deg, and has the following details.

AOA CL
-1.5 deg 0
4 deg (unknown)
6 deg 0.6
PROBLEM SOLVING
An airfoil has a lift curve slope at 6.3/rad and angle at zero lift of -2deg. At what angle of attack will the
airfoil develop a lift of 140 lbs/ft at 100 mph under SSLC? Assume c = 8ft.

PROBLEM NO. 2
The aircraft is flying at a velocity of 50 m/s, at an altitude of 5000 m. Determine the lift/span created by
the rectangular wing, with chord of 2.5 m, and a span of 12 m. The airfoil is flying at an angle of attack
of 4 deg, and has the following details.

AOA CL
-1.5 deg 0
4 deg (unknown)
6 deg 0.6