LEVELS OF

MEASUREMENT
 NOMINAL LEVEL

 They are sometimes called categorical scales or categorical data. Such a scale classifies
persons or objects into two or more categories. Whatever the basis for classification, a
person can only be in one category, and members of a given category have a common set
of characteristics.
 EXAMPLES
 Method of payment (cash, check, debit card, credit card) –
 Type of school (public vs. private) –
 Eye Color (Blue, Green, Brown)
 ORDINAL LEVEL

 This involves data that may be arranged in some order, but differences between data values either
cannot be determined or meaningless. An ordinal scale not only classifies subjects but also ranks
them in terms of the degree to which they possess a characteristics of interest. In other words, an
ordinal scale puts the subjects in order from highest to lowest, from most to least. Although
ordinal scales indicate that some subjects are higher, or lower than others, they do not
 EXAMPLES
 Food Preferences
 Stage of Disease
 Social Economic Class (First, Middle, Lower)
 Severity of Pain
 INTERVAL LEVEL

 This is a measurement level n o t o n l y c l a s s i f i e s a n d o r d e r s t h e

measurements, but it also specifies that the distances between each interval on the scale
are equivalent along the scale from low interval to high interval. A value of zero does not
mean the absence of the quantity. Arithmetic operations such as addition and subtraction
can be performed on values of the variable.
 EXAMPLES
 Temperature on Fahrenheit/Celsius Thermometer
 Trait anxiety (e.g., high anxious vs. low anxious)
 IQ (e.g., high IQ vs. average IQ vs. low IQ)
 RATIO LEVEL

 A ratio scale represents the highest, most precise, level of measurement. It has the
properties of the interval level of measurement and the ratios of the values of the variable
have meaning. A value of zero means the absence of the quantity. Arithmetic operations
such as multiplication and division can be performed on the values of the variable.
 EXAMPLES
 - Height and weight
 Time
 Time until death
Operations that make sense for variables of
different scales.
DATA COLLECTION
 DATA COLLECTION

 Everybody collects, interprets and uses information, much of it in numerical or statistical

forms in day-today life.
 is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest, in an
established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research questions, test
hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes.
 Without proper planning for data collection, a number of problems can occur. If the data
collection steps and processes are not properly planned, the research project can
ultimately end up with a data set that does not serve the purpose for which it was
intended. For example, if more than one person is
 Consequences from Improperly Collected
Data

 Inability to answer research questions accurately.

 Inability to repeat and validate the study.
 Distorted findings resulting in wasted resources.
 Misleading other researchers to pursue fruitless avenues of investigation.
 Compromising decisions for public policy.
 Causing harm to human participants and animal subjects.
 Steps in Data Gathering

 1. Set the objectives for collecting data

 2. Determine the data needed based on the set objectives.
 3. Determine the method to be used in data gathering and define the comprehensive data
collection points.
 4. Design data gathering forms to be used.
 5. Collect data.
 Choosing of Method of Data Collection

 Decision-makers need information that is relevant, timely,

accurate and usable. The cost of obtaining, processing and
analyzing these data is high. The challenge is to find ways,
which lead to information that is cost-effective, relevant,
timely and important for immediate use. Some methods pay
attention to timeliness and reduction in cost. Others pay
attention to accuracy and the strength of the method in
using scientific.
 SOURCES OF DATA

 Primary Sources - Provide a first-hand account of an event

or time period and are considered to be authoritative. They
represent original thinking, reports on discoveries or
events, or they can share new information. Often these
sources are created at the time the events occurred but they
can also include sources that are created later. They are
usually the first formal appearance of original research.
 Primary Data

 are data documented by the primary source. The data collectors documented the data
themselves. The first hand information obtained by the investigator is more reliable and
accurate since the investigator can extract the correct information by removing doubts, if
any, in the minds of the respondents regarding certain questions. High response rates
might be obtained since the answers to various questions are obtained on the spot. It
permits explanation of questions concerning difficult subject matter.
 Secondary Sources

 offer an analysis, interpretation or a restatement of

primary sources and are considered to be persuasive
. They often involve generalisation, synthesis,
interpretation, commentary or evaluation in an
attempt to convince the reader of the creator's
argument. They often attempt to describe or explain
primary sources.
 Secondary Data

 are data documented by a secondary source. The data collectors had the data documented
by other sources.
 In secondary data, data are primary data for the agency that collected them, and become
secondary for someone else who uses these data for his own purposes.
 Secondary data are less expensive to collect both in money and time. These data can also
be better utilized and sometimes the quality of such data may be better because these
might have been collected by persons who were specially trained for that purpose.
 The primary data can be collected by the
following five methods:

1. Direct personal interviews - The

researcher has direct contact with the
interviewee. The researcher gathers
information by asking questions to
the interviewee.
2. Indirect/Questionnaire Method -
This methods of data collection
involve sourcing and accessing
existing data that were originally
collected for the purpose of the study.
 Key Design Principles of a Good
Questionnaire

 1. Keep the questionnaire as short as possible.

 2. Decide on the type of questionnaire (Open Ended or Closed Ended).
 3. Write the questions properly.
 4. Order the questions appropriately.
 5. Avoid questions that prompt or motivate the respondent to say what you would like to hear.
 6. Write an introductory letter or an introduction.
 7. Write special instructions for interviewers or respondents.
 8. Translate the questions if necessary.
 9. Always test your questions before taking the survey. (Pre-test)
 An open-ended question is a type of question that does not include response categories.
The respondent is not given any possible answers to choose from. This type of question is
usually appropriate for collecting subjective data. It permit free responses that should be
recorded in the respondent’s own words.
 A closed-ended question is a type of question that includes a list of response categories
from which the respondent will select his answer. It is useful if the range of possible
responses is known. This type of question is usually appropriate for collecting objective
data.
3. A focus group is a group interview of
approximately six to twelve people who
share similar characteristics or common
interests. A facilitator guides the group
based on a predetermined set of topics.
4. Experiment is a method of
collecting data where there is direct
human intervention on the conditions
that may affect the values of the
variable of interest.
5. Observation is a technique that involves systematically
selecting, watching and recoding behaviors of people or
other phenomena and aspects of the setting in which they
occur, for the purpose of getting (gaining) specified
information. It includes all methods from simple visual
observations to the use of high level machines and
measurements, sophisticated equipment or facilities
 The secondary data can be collected by the
following five methods:

1. Published report on newspaper and periodicals.

2. Financial Data reported in annual reports.
3. Records maintained by the institution.
4. Internal reports of the government departments.
5. Information from official publications.