Tasks: Study The Structure of Word and The Processes of Building New Words
Tasks: Study The Structure of Word and The Processes of Building New Words
Tasks: Study The Structure of Word and The Processes of Building New Words
1
Is WORD a smallest meaningful unit of
language?
• a. Nation
• b. National
• c. Nationalize
• d. Nationalization
• Are they all words?
• Can they be divided into smaller meaningful units?
YES .
- E.g. d → 4 units: Nation/ al/ ize/ (a)tion
2
The Morpheme
• A. Definition
• - The minimal meaningful unit of language is used to build up
the word.
• E.g. hunt
• er hunters
• s
• In spoken language, morphemes are composed of phonemes (the
smallest linguistically distinctive units of sound)
E.g. hunters: /h/, /u/, /n/, /t/, /ə/ and /z/
• In written language, morphemes are composed of graphemes (the
smallest units of written language)
E.g. hunters: h, u, n, t, e, r, s
3
a minimal meaningful unit of language: morpheme
• Morpheme has: - sound form
- meaning
It is used to constitute a word
Cannot be subdivided into smaller meaningful units
How many morphemes are there?
- Bookish
- Unlucky
- Unfortunately
- Welcome
- denationalization
4
- Book/ish
- Un/luck/y
- Un/fortun(e)/ate/ly
- Welcome
- De/nation/al/iz(e)/ation
5
Various
Disinfected
Industrialized
Postgraduation
Materialistic
6
Vari/ous
Dis/infect/ed
Industri/al/ize/(e)d
Post/graduat(e)/ion
Material/ist/ic
7
HOW MANY MORPHEMES ARE THERE IN THE
FOLLOWING SENTENCES?
1. He writes both novels and non-fiction books.
2. She often says you are the cleverest guy in the class.
3. My teacher isn‘t satisfied with my homework, so I have to redo
it.
4. Recent research suggests that there may be some kind of
relationship between the place where people live and the
likelihood of them suffering from depression at some time in
their lives.
8
B. Characteristics (features):
- A morpheme cannot be broken down further, i.e. it cannot be divided
without altering or destroying its meaning.
E.g. kind * kin - d
- Many morphemes cannot stand as words on their own. A morpheme is
free if it can stand alone, or bound if it is used exclusively alongside a
free morpheme.
E.g. un-break-able
af root
(bound) (free)
desir(e) able ity
root af
(free) (bound)
E.g. 2 perceive
conceive bound root (productive
morphemes in Latin)
receive
• Root morphemes are (usually free) morphemes around which words
can be built up through the addition of affixes.
• E.g. kind – kindly, kindness, kinder, kindest
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* Types of affixes: 1. Derivational
a) Prefix: an affix that is attached to the front of its stem
E.g. disappear , replay , illegal , inaccurate
b) Suffix: an affix that is attached to the end of its stem
E.g. quickly, beautiful, management, organizatio
2. inflectional
Grammatical morpheme
E.g worked, the fastest, students, anticipated
12
4. Base, stem and root morphemes:
•Root morphemes are (usually free) morphemes
around which words can be built up through the
addition of affixes.
E.g. kind – kindly, kindness, kinder, kindest
* Base can be defined as an element (free or bound,
root morpheme or complex word) to which
additional morphemes are added. Base is also called
a stem.
E.g. Kind-nesses
root
base/stem
word
• 5. Inflectional and Derivational Morphemes:
• Derivational morphemes are those that can be added to a word to
create another word with new meaning and/ or new synntactic
category.
• Inflectional morphemes do not change the meaning or syntactic
category of a word. They can mark a word’s grammar category such
as tense, number, aspect and so on.
• E.g. 1 teach + er + s
noun
• E.g. 2 ING
•
• work (v) ED infl.
14
• S
Division of morphemes into various types
Morphemes
Root morphemes Affixational morphemes
(mostly free) (all bound)
Free Bound Infl. Der.
N (jobless) (convert) (N)+S/’S un+happy
V(worker) (incur) (V)+ED/ ING happiness
Adj.(reddish) (exclude) (Adj)+ER/ EST luckily
morpheme
Root/lexical Affixational/grammatic
morpheme al morpheme (bound)
(mostly free)
Derivational Inflectional
morpheme morpheme
prefix suffix
16
The word
A minimal free form that can occur in isolation , e.g. house
Its position to neighboring elements is not entirely fixed.
E.g. hunters can occur in different positions within the sentence:
The hunters pursued the bear
The bear was pursued by the hunters
* What about the units –er and –s? Can it function independently?
Can it occur in different
positions?(*erhunt? *serhunt?)
-er and –s are not words
* What about the hunters? Can it function independently?
Can it occur in different positions?
Can it be divided into smaller free
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forms?
The hunters is not a word, but a phrase
Words: 2 kinds(1)
19
6. The difference between Lexical and Grammatical Morphemes
7. Morpheme problems:
- Not all words can be analysed into morphemes so easily
E.g. Foot - feet
child - children
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Word Structure
A. Types of words: simple word vs complex word
• Simple words are those that cannot be broken down into
smaller meaningful units
E.g. and, boy, hunt, hospital, gentle
• Complex words can be analysed into constituent parts
E.g. boys, hunters, hospitalize, hospitalization, gentleman,
gentlemanly
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• B. Word structure:
• * Morphology deals with the internal structure of complex words
only
• * What sort of structure do complex words have?
• - The morphemes of a complex word are put together in a
particular way, with a particular arrangement and order. A
morpheme must be bound in a particular position. Each affix
attaches only to a particular lexical category, called its base and
results in a word of another particular lexical category.
E.g. nation
national * izenational
nationalize * nationdeizational
denationalize * dego ; * nationize
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denationalization
Features of word structure
v Af V Af
Adj Af af V
real ize ation dis agree ment
BRACKET DIAGRAM
Disagreement
[agree]V
[dis [ agree]V] V
[[dis [agree]V] V ment]N
Realization
[real]A
[[real]A ize] V
25
[[[real]Aize]V ation ] N
BRACKET DIAGRAM
• Unharmonious
• Nonmotivated
• Interrelation
• Interpretation
• Interruption
• Greediness
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* The internal structure of a complex word is not obvious
sometimes.
a) b)
N
N
Adj Af
Af N
Af Adj
Adj Af
un happy ness
un happy ness
- The diagram (b) is wrong because the prefix un- can combine
freely with adjectives, but not with nouns.
Word formation
1. Derivation
A. Definition: Derivation is the morphological process by which a
new word is built from a base, usually through the addition of an
affix.
B. Inflectional and Derivational: 2 main fields in morphology.
•Inflectional morphology studies the way in which words
vary/inflect in order to express grammatical contrasts in sentences.
E.g. Singular/plural; past/present tense
•Derivational morphology studies the principles governing the
construction of new words.
INFLECTIONAL MORPHOLOGY
A. Definition: Inflection is the process of modifying the
word’s form to mark the subgrammatical class to which
this word belongs.
e.g. 3rd-person singular: I work, he works;
past tense: I worked
B. Types: 3 types of inflection, realized in 8 inflectional
markers
1) Noun/ nominal inflectional markers:
a. Plural markers –s e.g. girl – girls
b. Possessive marker –’s e.g. Mary’s (book); boys’ (books)
2) Verb inflectional markers:
a. 3rd person present singular marker –s
e.g. I bake – He bakess
b. Past tense marker –ed
e.g. (they) wait – (they) waited
c. Progressive marker –ing
e.g. (they) sing – (they are) singing
d. Past participle marker -en or ed
e.g. (have) eaten; (have) baked
3. Adjective inflectional marker :
a. Superioritive marker –er fast – faster
b. Superlative marker: -est fast - fastest 30
DERIVATIONAL MORPHOLOGY
• A. Definition: Derivation is the process of creating new words by
adding affixes to other words or base morphemes
• E.g. work V + er workerN
• B. Characteristics:
• 1. Category Change:
• - Creates a new word by changing the category and/or the
meaning of the base to which it applies.
• e.g. sing V + er singer N
• X V + er XN (one who does X)
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2. Derivational Rules
- Help predict how words may be formed in English.
E.g. from the rule: un + Adjective X unX = not X
un + harmonious (A) means “…”
- Help analyse words, e.g. Trainer, trainee
train = X;
-erN = “one who does X”,
-eeN = “one who receives X person who is Xed
- Help determine the category of the base to which an affix is
added.
E.g. workV + -er = worker (one who works)
workN + -er = *worker
3. Multiple derivations:
- Create multiple levels of word structure consistent with
the word formation rules and in terms of the feeding rule.
E.g. organ + ize + ation + al organizational
[organ]N
[[organ]Nize]V
[[[organ]Nize]V ation]N
[[[[organ]Nize]Vation]Nal]A
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4. Phonological constraint
Particular derivational affix is able to attach only to stems
with particular phonological properties.
E.g. Adj + –en Verbs with a causative meaning
(Adjectives: monosyllabic stems that end in an obstruent
(non-sonorant))
E..g. white + en whiten but abstracten (*) or
greenen (*)
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DERIVATION AND INFLECTION
1. Category Change
* Inflectional affixes: does not change either the grammatical
category or the type of meaning of the word it applies .
E.g.
Book N + s books N work V + ed workedV
Man - men Sink - sank
* Derivational affixes: change the category and / or the type of
meaning of form to which they apply , to create a new word
E.g.
Govern V + ment AF government N
2. Positioning within the word:
- Derivational affixes must be closer to the root than an inflectional
affixes. E.g. Denationalised ; workers
- Inflectional affixes must be the last member to be added to
the word. E.g. [[[organ]Nize]V]S
3. Productivity:
- Inflectional affixes typically have very few exceptions
E.g. the plural marker “-s” can combine with any count N
- Derivational affixes characteristically apply to restricted classes of
stems.
E.g. Terror + ize terrorize V hospitalize V
* Horror + ize
* Green + en
2. Compounding - compounds
A. Definition:
The process of creating a new word by joining two or
more already existing words
e.g.
black + bird blackbird; hand + wash hand-wash
B. Characteristics:
1. Productivity:
Highly productive: found in all lexical categories
E.g. N: boyfriend; V: team-teach; Adj: easy-going,
Adv: anti-clockwise
(Nouns: the most common type)
dependent + head
• 2. Structural status of constituent members:
• - The constituent members of a compound
are not equal: the lexical category of the last
member is the same as that of the whole
compound.
• E.g. washing machine (N)
• Adj N
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3. Grammatical status
- The Head undergoes inflection, e.g. hand-washed
4. Number of structural members:
- The basic compounding operation is always binary (no more
than two constituents)
E.g. lady-killer
N N
N N N Prep
V af V af
lady kill er hang er on
- The entire compound always consists of two components, each
of which may be a compound.
E.g. 1 N
N N
N N N N
stone age cave dweller
E.g. 2 N
N N
N N
dog food box
40
5. Inter-relationships between compounding and derivation:
compounding and derivation may feed each other
Derivation feeds Compounding Compounding feeds Derivation
(the members of a compound are (a compound may serve
as the base of
themselves derivationally complex) a derivational affix)
Adj. N
Adj. Adj. V af
N af V af N V
42
C. Types: classified according to a variety of ways:
1. According to meaning:
a. Non-idiomatic compounds: salesgirl, goalkeeper
b. Idiomatic compounds: lip-service, blackleg, blackhand
2. According to componental relationship:
a. Coordinative compounds: actor-manager
b. Subordinative compounds: book-keeper
3. According to part of speech: compound nouns, compound
verbs, compound adjectives, compound adverbs, compound
prepositions.
4. According to compositional types: compounds formed by
juxtaposition, compounds formed by morphological means,
compounds formed by syntactic means, compounds formed
43
by both morphological and syntactic means.
3. Conversion (Zero derivation)
- A morphological process to create a new word
without the use of affixation by simply assigning an
already existing word to a new syntactic category.
- restricted to unsuffixed words
E.g. work V+ work N
She needs more butter. She is buttering the bread for the children
45
4. Stress shift
• A morphological process to create a new word by
changing the position of the stress pattern of the
existing word.
• E.g. ‘record N re’cord V ;
• ‘combine N com’bine V
‘perfect per’fect
‘content con’tent
46
5. Abbreviation/ shortening
* Clipping
A morphological process to create a new word by
shortening a polysyllabic word. E.g. maths
49
What are the words?
1. B.A
2. M.A
3. Ph.D
4. RAM
5. UNICEF
6. GMT
7 IELTS
8. TOEFL
9. TOEIC
10. TESL
11. TESOL
50
• RAM = random access memory
• UNICEF= UN children‘s Fund
• GMT= Greenwich Mean Time
• TESL= Teaching English as a second language
• TESOL= teaching English to speakers of other
languages
• TOEFL= Test of English as a Foreign language
• IELTS= International English language Testing System
51
* Blending
A morphological process to create a new word
by merging parts of two already existing
words.
E.g. breakfast and lunch brunch,
stagnation and inflation stagflation;
smoke and fog smog
7. Back formation (Back Derivation)
•A morphological process to create a new word by
substracting a suggested affix from the existing
word.
•E.g. beggarN – garAF beg V
53
8. Onnomatopoea (Sound imitation)
• A morphological process to create a new
word by imitating the sounds produced by
animals or natural phenomena.
• E.g. moo, meow, roar, cuckoo, howl,
crackle, splash, crow
54
9. Adoption of brand names as common words
A brand name becomes the name for the item or process associated
with the brand name. The name ceases to be capitalized and acts
as a normal verb/ noun and so on.
E.g. a Samsung, sandwich….
10. Borrowing
A word is taken from another language. It may be adapted to the
borrowing language’s phonological system to varying degrees.
E.g. Kimono, sushi, spaghetti
55
MORPHOLOGY & PHONOLOGY
Allomorphy or morphophonemic variation in English
57
2. The distribution of the allomorphs of the past tense form
of the English verb.
The English plural morpheme has three allomorphs:
/∂d/, /t/ and /d/. /∂/ is being used to stand for schwa.
Morpheme Past tense of ‘-d’/ ‘-ed’
Allomorphs /∂d/, /t/ /d/
Distribution after /t/ and after other after other
/d/ voiceless voiced
consonants consonants
and vowels
faded, stated, kissed, buzzed,
petted leaped, played,
58
stocked mooned
2.1. Motivation:
• Phonological form /d/ occurs after vowels and voiced
consonants other than /d/
• /t/ occurs after voiceless consonants other than /t/
• /∂d/ occurs after the alveolar stops /t/ and /d/
2.2. Unmotivated allomorphy: a change in the
pronunciation of a morpheme that is not based on the
phonological surroundings. Most of these simply must
be memorized.
E.g. see the textbook p.42
59
• Syntax
What is syntax?
60
PHRASES – CLAUSES- SENTENCES
61
• The PREMODIFIERS of an NP: (1.0,1,1.1),2,3
• 1.0 Predeterminers
• - All, both, half, twice, such (a), etc.
• E.g.: All the students, half the price, such a man.
62
• 1. central determiners
• + Articles: a, an, the
• E.g.: a little baby, an awful speech, the most interesting film.
• + Demonstratives: this, that, these, those
• E.g.: this old car, those expensive shirts.
• + Possessives : my, your, our, John’s, etc.
• E.g.: our house, John’s wife
• + Indefinite : some, any, another, each, every, no, enough, etc.
• E.g.: some beautiful flowers, every primary student
• Notes: Each NP can have only one central determiner. It is not
grammatically correct to say:
• *the this book (-), *my some books (-)
63
• 1.1 postdeterminers
• + cardinal numbers : one, two, three, etc.
• E.g.: three desks, one hundred pencils
• + ordinal numbers : first, second, third, etc.
• E.g.: the first person, the third position
• + general ordinals : other, next, last, final, many, more,
most, few, little, least, etc.
• E.g.:his last novels, many newspapers
• Notes: Unlike determiners, it is possible to have more
than two postdets in an NP
• E.g.: The first five pages
• My last few possessions
64
• 2. Adjective phrases
• IF more than two adjectives, put in the order OSASCO (opinion, size,age,
shape, colour,origin)
• E.g an (expensive antique oval chinese) plate
• 3. Noun modifier
• E.g. a rice (3) cake(4)
• An evening (3) class (4)
65
• 5. The POSTMODIFIERS of an NP may be:
• Prepositional phrases:
• E.g.:the best day of my life, his desire for fame, etc.
• The occurrence of subordinate PPs as postmodifiers is
very common, and it is important to distinguish cases
like :
• E.g.: (1) the girl by the table with the carved legs
• (2) the girl by the table with the sunburnt legs
• In (1) one PP postmodifies “girl”, and the other PP is
subordinate to it, postmodifying “table”. In (2), however,
both PPs postmodify “girl”.
66
• Adjective phrases:
• E.g.: something strange, people alive, etc.
• Adverb phrases:
• E.g.:the room upstairs, the car outside, etc.
• Noun phrases in apposition:
• E.g.: the bandicoot a tiny marsupial
• Relative clauses:
• E.g.: a quality that I admire, the book which I bought
at a book festival, the man who leads the collection
campaign, etc. 67
• Non-finite clauses:
• 3 types of non-finite clause can occur as
postmodifiers:
• + To infinitive:
• E.g.; John is the man to see
• I lacked the energy to run away
• + Ing participle:
• E.g.:The man carrying the shotgun is my uncle
• Three men digging for gold discovered the body
• + Ed participle:
• The techniques used were quite innovative.
68
• The film directed by Mel Gibson won two Oscars
I.2- Function:
• * In the clause, NPs act as subject (S), as object (O), or as complement (C)
and as adverbial (A).
• E.g.: The house was empty. NP = S
• The cost of living in London is high NP = S
• We have bought a new house NP = O
• She gave her daughter a doll NP = O
• They elected him the chairperson NP = C
• Her youngest daughter has become a very famous violist
NP = C
• We moved to Ho Chi Minh City last year NP = A
The couple is going to Dalat for their honeymoon next week
NP = A
• * In the phrase, NPs can act as modifiers in other NPs
• E.g.:
• the champion unicyclist Wilbur J. Beanstalk NP = M 69
71
• III. THE ADJECTIVE PHRASE AND THE ADVERB PHRASE
• III.1. The adjective phrase (Adj.P)
• III.1.1. Structure:
[Premodifier(s)] + HEAD + [Postmodifier(s)]
a) The head of an Adj.P must be an Adjective which may be
simple, comparative or superlative.
• E.g.: quite cheap, her elder brother, the most intelligent
boy, etc.
b) Premodifiers are always adverbs: typically, adverbs of degree
(extremely, rather, too, very) or other adverbs (surprisingly,
convincingly) . Some, especially very and too, can be
reduplicated (very very very tall). 72
• c) Postmodifiers can be:
• Adverbs (indeed, enough)
• E.g.:very tall indeed, nice enough
• PPs:
• E.g.: too hot for comfort
• Non-finite clauses:
• E.g.: too difficult for me to understand
• Finite clauses:
• E.g.:more interesting than I thought
73
• III.1.2. Function:
• In the clause, Adj.Ps function as complement (C):
• E.g.:This coffee is hot
• Adolphus drinks his coffee hot
• In the phrase, Adj.Ps can function as premodifiers in NPs:
• E.g.:a very large slice of bread
• the most boring book
74
• III. 2. The adverb phrase ( Adv.P)
• III.2.1- Structure:
[Premodifier(s)] + HEAD + [Postmodifier(s)]
a) The head of an Adv.P must be an adverb
• E.g.: very successfully, quite quickly, etc.
• b) Otherwise, the structure of Adv.Ps is the same as that of
Adj.Ps:
• E.g.: too quickly for comfort
• more slowly than we expected
• clearly enough for me to understand
• III.2.2-Function:
• Adv.Ps function in the clause as adverbials (A)
• E.g.: She sang very well
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• The passengers are talking extremely noisily in the station
• IV. THE VERB PHRASE (VP)
• The VP always acts as predicator (P) in the clause
• IV.1. We need to distinguish between finite and non-finite
verb phrases:
• The verb forms operate in finite and non-finite verb phrase,
which are distinguished as follows:
• Finite verb phrase:
• (i)- Finite verb phrases have tense distinction:
• E.g.:He works as a builder
• He worked as a builder
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• (ii)- Finite verb phrase occurs as the verb element of a
clause. There is person and number concord between the
subject and the finite-verb. Concord is particularly overt
with BE.
• E.g. I am/ she is/ we are...
• With most lexical verbs, concord is restricted to a contrast
between 3rd and non-3rd person singular present:
• E.g.He reads the paper every morning
• They read the paper every morning
• With modal auxiliaries there is, no concord:
• E.g. I/ you / he / they/ we { could come
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• { can play the guitar
• (iii)- Finite-verb phrases have mood. In contrast to the
“unmarked” indicative mood, we distinguish the “marked”
moods and imperative and subjunctive.
• E.g. He spoke to me as if I were deaf
• It is necessary that every member inform himself of
these rules
• Be reasonable !
78
• Non-finite verb phrase:
• The non-finite forms of the verb are the infinitive (with or without
TO), the -ing participle, and the -ed participle. Non-finite verb
phrases consist of one or more such items.
• Compare:
• .Finite - verb phrases Non - finite verb phrases
• He smokes heavily To smoke like that must be dangerous
• He is working I found him working
• I will get my nose pierced one day
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• I WANT TO TAKE A REST NOW
• HE WANTS TO TAKE A REST NOW.
• I LOVE READING NOVELS
• MAI LOVES READING NOVELS
80
• The structure of finite verb phrases:
• The structure of the VP is mentioned in two kinds of elements:
The main verb (Mv) and auxiliaries (Aux). The auxiliaries are
optional, and precede the main verb.
• At the most general level the structure of VP is:
• { Aux } {Aux } {Aux } Mv
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B. SENTENCES
• SENTENCE ELEMENTS
• A sentence may consist of one or more words
• E.g. Thanks. Go away, please.
• Hungry? How nice!
• What? What a nuisance!
• Most sentences of more than one word consist of two
nuclei: the subject and the predicate.
82
• SENTENCE ELEMENTS
• Most sentences consist of two nuclei: the subject
and the predicate.
83
SUBJECT PREDICATE
John loves Mary
The cat chased a mouse
A stitch in time saves nine
James Smith plays the piano beautifully
Captain Cook discovered Australia in 1776
The people I like the best never forget my birthday
I met her down the street yesterday
84
• I. The subject:
• The subject is not necessarily a single word (a noun or a
pronoun). The subject can be expressed by a noun phrase,
a non-finite clause or a finite clause.
• E.g.: Men do not know how to suffer; women do
• The young girl with long hair walked confidently
across the room
• English enables many people to make some social
advancement
• Learning English enables many people to make some
social advancement
• What to do with the money drove him mad
• That coffee grows in Brazil is famous to all
• Whether or not he gets the money doesn’t matter to me
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• What we are learning seems to be difficult
• The subject of a sentence may be ‘It’ as empty or preparatory
subject, or ‘There’ as introductory or anticipatory subject.
• (a) Empty subject
• Time: It’s 3 o’clock. It’s Thursday. It’s November 23rd
• It’s time for us to leave
• Weather: It’s hot. It’s raining.
• Temperature: It’s 37oC
• Distance: It’s 5 km from here to the university
• The tides: It’s high tide at 11.44
• Environment: It’s noisy in here
• Present situation: Isn’t it awful!
• With since: It’s three years since we last met
• With say: It says here there was a big fire in Dong Xuan
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• With take: It takes 20 minutes to get to work
• (b) Preparatory subject:
• E.g.:It’s pleasant to lie in the sun
• It’s pleasant lying in the sun
• It’s a shame that Tom isn’t here
• It doesn’t matter when we arrive
• (c) Introductory ‘There’
• E.g.: There was a violent storm last night
• There came a loud knock at the front door
• There lived an old woman in that humble cottage
• There have occurred many great changes since we
last met 87
• II. The object:
• The object denotes the person or thing most intimately affected by
the action or state denoted by the predicate. An object is normally a
noun phrase; it usually goes after the verb in the active. It can
become the subject of the verb in the passive. An object can be a
clause _ finite or non-finite.
• E.g.: Mary bought some ice cream
• He loves girls with long hair and brown eyes
• Mary likes to eat ice cream
• We always enjoy listening to classical music
• Mary bought whatever we wanted
• Nobody understands why the minister committed suicide
• They didn’t know whether the crowd had been dismissed
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• * Objects can be divided into two types: direct objects and
indirect objects:
• * A direct object refers to the person or thing affected by the
action of the verb. It comes immediately after a transitive verb:
• E.g.: He kicked the dog ; The dog bit him
• * An indirect object usually refers to the person who ‘benefits’
from the action expressed in the verb
• E.g.: Mary threw me the ball
• The man bought his wife some flowers
• Indirect object can stand either after the verb or after the direct
object with a preposition in between. In the latter case, another
term which can be used for the indirect object is prepositional
object.
• E.g.:I brought him a cup of tea; I brought a cup of tea to him
She gave John some pocket money
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She gave some pocket money to John
• III. The complement: two types of complement: subject
complement (Cs) and object complement (Co).
• The subject complement can be expressed by a noun phrase, an
adjective phrase, a prepositional phrase, a non-finite clause or finite
clause.
• E.g. She seems an honest person
• The students always act dumb
• His brother grew happier gradually
• The machine is still in good condition
• The student is in a hurry
• His hobby is collecting stamps
• Your problem now is how to win your boss’s feeling
• Our duty is that we must finish the problem
• Their concern is whether they can help their students to pronounce
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correctly
• The object complement can be expressed by a noun phrase, an
adjective phrase, a prepositional phrase, a non-finite clause or a
finite clause.
• E.g.: They made Sam the chairman
• We found him a good friend
• They have proved me wrong
• He likes his coffee strong
• We found her in tears
• The burglar left the house in a mess
• She wants all of us to go
• I found what he said to mean nothing
• I saw her running down the hill
• They made him feed the kangaroo
• I will get my nose pierced one day
• I named my son what my father named me/ Tuan.
• Our supporter’ s enthusiasm has made the club what it is today91
• IV. The adverbial:
• The adverb tells us something about the action in a sentence by
modifying a verb, i.e. by telling how, when, where, etc. something
happens or is done:
• E.g.: Paganini must have played the violin beautifully
• Adverbs are single words. Nevertheless, many phrases and clauses
can perform a similar function of the adverb in the sentence. The
term ‘adverbial’ is used to describe any single words (adverbs),
phrases or clauses that function as the adverb in the sentence. The
adverbial can be expressed by an adverb, a noun phrase, a
prepositional phrase, a non-finite clause or a finite clause.
• E.g. They badly need a more effective banking system
• She sang in a soft voice
• They will not come here next month
• The students met to prepare for the Students’ Day ceremony
• Having finished the work, they went out for a drink
• I couldn’t feel anger against her because I liked her too much
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•
I met him yesterday.
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• Adverbials are generally much more mobile in the
sentence than the other elements. So mobile are certain
adverbials that they can be placed in the middle of the
predicate.
• E.g.:Crabs are now being served
• Crabs are being served now
• Now crabs are being served
• Adverbials are also optional in most sentence types.
• E.g.:(Sometimes) she (kindly) sends us some
photographs
• The girls are singing (loud) (in the room)
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V. The verb: 3 types: transitive, intransitive and linking
V.1. Transitive verb is a verb that must be followed by a direct object to
complete the meaning of the verb. Such a verb is called a monotransitive
verb.
E.g. She bought a camera
They’ve just built a new house
• Some transitive verbs have 2 objects: a direct and indirect object. They are
called ditransitive verbs.
E.g. She has sent her son some money
I.O D.O
He bought the flowers for his girlfriend
D.O I.O
• Some transitive verbs require, beside the object, a complement or an
adverbial. They are complex transitive verbs.
E.g. We elected him the monitor
D.O Co
We put George in the first class
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D.O A
V.2. Intransitive verbs: do not transmit action and do not require objects.
They usually express a motion and is often followed by an adverbial
(optional).
E.g. He has arrived (here) (yesterday).
The boys are playing (noisily) (in the garden)
V.3. Linking verb is a verb that must be followed by a complement or an
adverbial to complete its meaning.
E.g. She has become a good teacher
The house is in good condition
* Some verbs can be used as more than one kind of verb depending on the
sentences in which they are used.
E.g. He opened the door quickly (tran-V)
The door opened (intran-V)
She is tasting the soup (tran-V)
The soup tastes salty (linking-V) 96
More examples of linking verbs
Taste, smell, seem, feel, look, become, get, grow,
remain, prove, sound, keep….
+ adjective phrase/ noun phrase (usually)
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• CLAUSE TYPES
• (SENTENCE STRUCTURES/ SENTENCE PATTERNS)
• S+V The girl + is dancing.
• S+V+O The girl + kissed + her dog.
• S+V+C The girl + is + sick.
• S+V+A The girl + lay + on the ground.
• S + V + O + O The girl + gave + her dog + a bone.
• S + V + O + C The girl + called + her dog + Honey.
• S + V + O + A The girl + put + her dog + on the sofa.
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V int → 1. S V (A)
The baby/ is sleeping/ (in the bed room)
V monotrans → 2. S V O (A)
She /is cleaning /the floor/ (at the moment).
V ditrans → 3. S V O O (A)
He /bought /me /a new laptop/ (yesterday).
V complextrans → 4. S V O C (A)
I /consider /you /my brother/(because you are younger than me).
→ 5. S V O A
She /put /the bag /on the bed.
V linking → 6. S V C
She /is /angry.
→ 7. S V A
We /are /in room 203.
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• Beside these seven basic sentence patterns for active sentences, there
are four patterns for passive sentences which in fact come from the
patterns for active sentences with O.
• S + Vpassive (A) The boy was hit (by a car running at a very high speed)
• S + Vpassive + O (A) The girl was given a nice doll (on her last birthday)
• S + Vpassive + C His father has just been
• appointed Director of Coca-cola
• S + Vpassive + A The wallet was laid under the blanket
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• Notes:
• * Many verbs can be restricted to one clause type.
E.g.: seem (type SVC), elect (type SVOC), sit (type SVA)
• * Many other verbs may enter more than one clause type
E.g.: * find (types SVOC, SVO, SVOO)
She has just found a new job; They found him a fool; He found his children
a good school
* put (type SVOA, SVOC): She put her money in a small box; That picture on
the wall is crooked so I must put it right
* open (type SV, SVO): The door opened; He opened the door
• * The verb get can belong to all types except SV
• E.g.: The manager is getting furious. (SVC)
• The boy get through the window. (SVA)
• He has just got a $1.000 reward.(SVO)
• She got her shoes and socks wet. (SVOC)
• The man got himself into trouble. (SVOA)
• She got her mother a nice present. (SVOO) 10
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• * Some clause types can be transformed into
some other types.
• E.g.: She/sent/ him/ a card (SVOO)
• She /sent /a card /to him (SVOA)
• He is jobless (SVC)
• He is without a job (SVA)
• The baby is sleeping (SV)
• The baby is asleep (SVC)
• He hurried (SV)
• He run fast (SVA) 10
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STRUCTURALLY; 3 TYPES OF CLAUSES:
1. FINITE CLAUSES
2. NON- FINITE CLAUSES
3. VERBLESS CLAUSES
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* Finite clause: a clause whose verb element is
a finite verb phrase.
E.g. John has visited New York.
Because John is working, he may not hear what you say.
The finite clause always contains a subject and a predicate,
except in the case of commands and ellipsis. The finite
clause can be used independently or dependently.
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Non-finite clauses
1. Classes of non-finite clauses
1.1 Infinitive
- infinitive with to:
+ Without subject: The best thing would be to tell every body.
+ With subject: The best thing would be for you to tell everybody.
- infinitive without to:
+ Without subject: All I did was hit him on the head.
+ With subject: Rather than John do it, I'd prefer to give the job to Mary.
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• 1.2. -ing participle
+ Without subject: Leaving the room, he tripped over the mat.
+ With subject: Her aunt having left the room, I declared my
passionate love for Celia.
• 1.3: -ed participle
+ Without subject: Covered with confusion, I left the room.
+ With subject: We left the room and went home, the job
finished.
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• Functions of non-finite clauses
*Subject
Playing chess can be relaxing
For a bridge to collapse like that is unbelievable.
Telling lies is wrong.
* Direct object
She enjoys playing chess.
*Subject complement
My wish is to be a pilot.
* Object complement
He watched her playing chess.
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* Adverbial
• Playing chess, she learned the value of patience.
* Appositive
• His ambition, to be a straight actor, was never
fulfilled.
* Adjectival complement
I'm glad to help you.
* Prepositional complement
• I’m interested in gardening
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CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES
SIMPLE SENTENCES- COMPOUNND SENTENCES- COMPLEX
SENTENCES – COMPOUND COMPLEX SENTENCES
A.Simple sentences: A simple sentence is the one that conntains a finite
verb (and only one finite verb)
• A simple sentence is composed, usually, of two parts: the Subject
and the Predicate. The basic sentence patterns of simple sentences:
1. S + V
2. S + V + C
3. S + V + A
4. S + V + O
5. S + V + I.O + D.O
6. S + V + O + A
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7. S + V + O + C 9
B. Compound sentences: A compound sentence consists of two or more
independent clauses usually connected by coordinating conjunctions
(coordinators). In a compound sentence, all the independent clauses
are of equal rank
Compound sentence = two or more independent clauses
Clauses are connected by coordinators : FANBOYSS …..
• E.g. I am teaching English, and you are listening to me.
• Do you understand that or is this point still not clear?
• Bring your book here and open it at page 4, but don't begin
reading.
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• C. Complex Sentences
Each of the sentences in a compound sentence can stand
independently. But there are some groups of words
which even though contain a finite verb, are not "
complete and independent human utterances" and
cannot stand alone.
E.g. When I saw her, . .. . Because he was late, . . .. . .
They must be bound to at least one independent clause.
Because he was late, we started without him
• Complex sentence= Main clause+ one or more
subordinate clause(s)
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• D. Compound complex
• = 2 independent clauses + one or more subordinating
clauses
-You should leave early or you have to stay overnight
because the gate will be locked in ten minutes.
- Anyone who has finished their homework first does
the cooking and I’ll do the cleaning.
- I told him that I wouldn’t phone but he still waited till
midnight.
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• Classify the following sentences according to structure.
If the sentence is a complex or a compound complex,
pick out the finite subordinate clause(s).
• 1. I'm glad that my mother made me take piano lessons
when I was a child.
• 2. Joe jumped into the river to rescue the little girl who
was drowning even though he wasn't a good swimmer.
• 3. I knew that I should get some sleep, but I just couldn't
put my book down because I was really enjoying it.
• 4. Thomas was thirsty yet he refused to drink the water
that I offered him.
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• 5. The Comedian made people laugh by telling jokes and
making funny faces.
• 6. Most 15th century Europeans believed that the world
was flat and that a ship could conceivably sail off the end
of the earth.
• 7. Please tell me soon whether you will go or not so that I
can decide what I'm going to do.
• 8. My sister can fall asleep under any conditions, but I
can't get to sleep unless the light is off and the room is
perfectly quiet.
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• 9. The cheapest way to get from an airport to a hotel is to
take an airport bus, but I'm not sure if River City has one.
10. You'd better give me your answer quickly, or else I 'll
withdraw the invitation.
• 11. As long as you 're going to the fruit market, would you
please pick up a few apples for me?
• 12. I'm sorry you 've decided not to go with us on the
river trip, but if you change your mind there will still be
enough room on the boat for you.
• 13. Jack insisted that he didn't need any help but I helped
him anyway.
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• Noun clause markers:
• THAT, WHAT< WHEN< WHERE< WHY, HOW MANY,
HOW MUCH, WHICH, WHOSE, WHETHER
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• Functions:
• 1. Subject:
• E.g.That his people believe that after last night is doubtful.
• 2. Object
• E.g. I don't know what I have to do.
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• 3. Complement
• - of a Subject (Cs)
• E.g. Her proposal is what we have expected
• - of an object (Co)
• E.g. We call him what he‘d like to.
• -of an adjective (Ca)
• E.g. I’m not quite sure if that’s right actually.
• - of a preposition (Cp)
• E.g. At the time of the original meting, nobody had any idea of what would
happen.
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• 1. Adverbial clause of time: before, after, just as, as
soon as, as, when, while, whenever, since, until, once,..
• E.g. Before you can bring the rib to your mouth, the
meat will fall off the bone.
• One must go along with the final decision once it
has been made.
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• 2. Adverbial clause of place: where, wherever
• E.g. Where he worked, everybody wore a bullet-proof
garment.
• You can sit wherever you like.
• 3. Adverbial clause of manner: As, as if, as though,
like. . ..
• E.g. Mr. Dong treats me as if I were his hamster.
• He was staring at her like he had never seen a woman
before.
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• 4. Adverbial clause of reason: because, since, as.. .
• E.g. He got the job because he can type with all his fingers.
• 5. Adverbial clause of purpose: so, so that, in order that,. . . .
• E.g. The park closes on Mondays so that the monkeys can rest.
• They advertised the book fair on TV in order that more people
should know about it.
•
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• 6. Adverbial clause of result: so, so that, so. ..
that. . . .
• E.g. I was so shocked that I dropped the rifle.
• Their daughter was very sick, so they couldn't come to
the dinner.
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• 7. Adverbial clause of condition: if, unless, on
condition that, provided ( that), as long as. . . .. .
• E.g. I will go if I get invited.
• While she loves her children, she is very strict with
them.
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• 8. Adverbial clause of concession: though, although,
even though, even if, whatever, no matter how
• E.g. Though we could see nothing, we distinctively heard
the sound in the distance.
• Whatever you say, I would never change my mind.
• No matter how hard he tries, he will not pass these
exams.
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