Lecture # 5

Practical Sampling Rates

 Speech
- Telephone quality speech has a bandwidth of 4 kHz
(actually 300 to 3300Hz)
- Most digital telephone systems are sampled at 8000
samples/sec
 Audio:
- The highest frequency the human ear can hear is
approximately 15kHz
- CD quality audio are sampled at rate of 44,000
samples/sec
 Video
- The human eye requires samples at a rate of at least 20
frames/sec to achieve smooth motion
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

 Pulse Code Modulation refers to a digital baseband signal that is

generated directly from the quantizer output
 Sometimes the term PCM is used interchangeably with quantization
See Figure 2.16 (Page 80)
Advantages of PCM:
 Relatively inexpensive

 Easily multiplexed: PCM waveforms from different

sources can be transmitted over a common digital

channel (TDM)
 Easily regenerated: useful for long-distance

communication, e.g. telephone

 Better noise performance than analog system

 Signals may be stored and time-scaled efficiently (e.g.,

satellite communication)
 Efficient codes are readily available

Disadvantage:
 Requires wider bandwidth than analog signals
2.5 Sources of Corruption in the sampled,
quantized and transmitted pulses
 Sampling and Quantization Effects

 Quantization (Granularity) Noise: Results when

quantization levels are not finely spaced apart enough

to accurately approximate input signal resulting in
truncation or rounding error.
 Quantizer Saturation or Overload Noise: Results when

input signal is larger in magnitude than highest

quantization level resulting in clipping of the signal.
 Timing Jitter: Error caused by a shift in the sampler

position. Can be isolated with stable clock reference.

 Channel Effects
 Channel Noise

 Intersymbol Interference (ISI)

Signal to Quantization Noise Ratio
 The level of quantization noise is dependent on how close any
particular sample is to one of the L levels in the converter

 For a speech input, this quantization error resembles a noise-

like disturbance at the output of a DAC converter
Uniform Quantization
 A quantizer with equal quantization level is a Uniform Quantizer
 Each sample is approximated within a quantile interval
 Error of a uniform quantizer is bounded by

 Uniform quantizers are optimal when the input distribution is

uniform
 i.e. when all values within the range are equally likely
 Signal to Quantization Noise Ratio

 The mean-squared value (noise variance) of the quantization error

is given by:

q/2 q/2 q/2

1 1
 2   (e)2 p(e)de   (e)2 q de  q  (e)2 de
q / 2 q / 2 q / 2

1 e3 q/2 q 2
q 
3 q / 2 12
 The peak power of the analog signal can be expressed as:

V 2 L2q 2
V 2 (
p )(
pp
)
2 4
 Therefore the Signal to Quatization Noise Ratio is given by:

SNRq  3L2
If q is the step size, then the maximum quantization error that can
occur in the sampled output of an A/D converter is q
V pp
q
L
where L = 2n is the number of quantization levels for the converter.
(n is the number of bits).

 Since L = 2n, SNR = 22n or in decibels


 S   10 log (22n )  6n dB

 N dB 10
Nonuniform Quantization
 Nonuniform quantizers have unequally spaced levels
 The spacing can be chosen to optimize the Signal-to-Noise Ratio

for a particular type of signal

 It is characterized by:
 Variable step size

 Quantizer size depend on signal size

 Sometimes non-uniform spacing is preferred to uniform spacing

 Many signals such as speech have a nonuniform distribution
 More amplitude is close to zero than a high level (see Fig. 2.17)

 Basic principle is to use more levels at regions with large

probability density function (pdf)
 Concentrate quantization levels in areas of largest pdf

 Or use fine quantization (small step size) for weak signals and

coarse quantization (large step size) for strong signals

Statistics of speech Signal Amplitudes

Figure 2.17: Statistical distribution of single talker speech signal

magnitudes (Page 81)
PCM Waveform Types
 The output of the A/D converter is a set of binary bits
 But binary bits are just abstract entities that have no physical
definition
 We use pulses to convey a bit of information, e.g.,

 In order to transmit the bits over a physical channel they must be

transformed into a physical waveform
 A line coder or baseband binary transmitter transforms a stream
of bits into a physical waveform suitable for transmission over a
channel
 Line coders use the terminology mark for “1” and space to mean “0”
 In baseband systems, binary data can be transmitted using many
kinds of pulses
 There are many types of waveforms. Why?  performance criteria!
 Each line code type have merits and demerits
 The choice of waveform depends on operating characteristics of a
system such as
 Modulation-demodulation requirements

 Bandwidth requirement

 Synchronization requirement

 Receiver complexity, etc.,

Goals of Line Coding (qualities to look for)
 A line code is designed to meet one or more of the following goals:

 Self-synchronization

 The ability to recover timing from the signal itself

 That is, self-clocking (self-synchronization) - ease of clock lock

or signal recovery for symbol synchronization
 Long series of ones and zeros could cause a problem

 Low probability of bit error

 Receiver needs to be able to distinguish the waveform associated

with a mark from the waveform associated with a space

 BER performance

 relative immunity to noise

 Error detection capability

 enhances low probability of error

 Spectrum Suitable for the channel
 Spectrum matching of the channel

 e.g. presence or absence of DC level

 In some cases DC components should be avoided

 The transmission bandwidth should be minimized

 Power Spectral Density

 Particularly its value at zero

 PSD of code should be negligible at the frequency near zero

 Transmission Bandwidth
 Should be as small as possible

 Transparency
 The property that any arbitrary symbol or bit pattern can be

transmitted and received, i.e., all possible data sequence should

be faithfully reproducible
Line Coder
 The input to the line encoder is
the output of the A/D converter
or a sequence of values and
that is a function of the data bit
 The output of the line encoder
is a waveform:

where f(t) is the pulse shape and Tb is the bit period (Tb=Ts/n
for n bit quantizer)
This means that each line code is described by a symbol mapping
function an and pulse shape f(t)
Details of this operation are set by the type of line code that is being
used
Summary of Major Line Codes
 Categories of Line Codes
 Polar - Send pulse or negative of pulse

 Unipolar - Send pulse or a 0

 Bipolar (a.k.a. alternate mark inversion, pseudoternary)

 Represent 1 by alternating signed pulses

 Generalized Pulse Shapes

 NRZ -Pulse lasts entire bit period

 Polar NRZ

 Bipolar NRZ

 RZ - Return to Zero - pulse lasts just half of bit period

 Polar RZ

 Bipolar RZ

 Manchester Line Code

 Send a 2-  pulse for either 1 (high low) or 0 (low high)

 Includes rising and falling edge in each pulse

  No DC component
 HS ( Half Sine)

 When the category and the generalized shapes are combined, we

have the following:
 Polar NRZ:

 Wireless, radio, and satellite applications primarily use Polar

NRZ because bandwidth is precious

 Unipolar NRZ

 Turn the pulse ON for a ‘1’, leave the pulse OFF for a ‘0’

 Useful for noncoherent communication where receiver can’t

decide the sign of a pulse

 fiber optic communication often use this signaling format

 Unipolar RZ

 RZ signaling has both a rising and falling edge of the pulse

 This can be useful for timing and synchronization purposes

  Bipolar RZ
 A unipolar line code, except now we alternate between
positive and negative pulses to send a ‘1’
 Alternating like this eliminates the DC component
This is desirable for many channels that cannot transmit
the DC components
 Generalized Grouping
 Non-Return-to-Zero: NRZ-L, NRZ-M NRZ-S

 Return-to-Zero: Unipolar, Bipolar, AMI

 Phase-Coded: bi-f-L, bi-f-M, bi-f-S, Miller, Delay Modulation

 Multilevel Binary: dicode, doubinary

Note:There are many other variations of line codes (see Fig. 2.22,
page 80 for more)
Commonly Used Line Codes
 Polar line codes use the antipodal mapping

 Polar NRZ uses NRZ pulse shape

 Polar RZ uses RZ pulse shape
Unipolar NRZ Line Code
 Unipolar non-return-to-zero (NRZ) line code is defined by

unipolar mapping

 In addition, the pulse shape for unipolar NRZ is:

where Tb is the bit period
Bipolar Line Codes
 With bipolar line codes a space is mapped to zero and a

mark is alternately mapped to -A and +A

It
is also called pseudoternary signaling or alternate mark inversion
(AMI)
Either RZ or NRZ pulse shape can be used
Manchester Line Codes
 Manchester line codes use the antipodal mapping and
the following split-phase pulse shape:
Summary of Line Codes
 First Null Bandwidth
 Unipolar NRZ, polar NRZ, and bipolar all have 1st null bandwidths of
Rb = 1/Tb
 Unipolar RZ has 1st null BW of 2Rb
 Manchester NRZ also has 1st null BW of 2Rb, although the
spectrum becomes very low at 1.6Rb
Comparison of Line Codes

 Self-synchronization
 Manchester codes have built in timing information because they

always have a zero crossing in the center of the pulse

 Polar RZ codes tend to be good because the signal level always

goes to zero for the second half of the pulse

 NRZ signals are not good for self-synchronization

 Error probability
 Polar codes perform better (are more energy efficient) than

Unipolar or Bipolar codes

 Channel characteristics
 We need to find the power spectral density (PSD) of the line

codes to compare the line codes in terms of the channel

characteristics
Generation of Line Codes

 The FIR filter realizes the different pulse shapes

 Baseband modulation with arbitrary pulse shapes can be
detected by
 correlation detector

 matched filter detector (this is the most common detector)