BASIC RESERVOIR ENGINEERING

A. Haribowo
Reservoir /Engineering
PERTAMINA EP REGION JAWA
2007
Dipersiapkan Untuk Materi ‘Pengenalan Teknik Reservoir’ BPS-DS,
Cirebon 30 Januari 2007 di Hotel Patrajasa
 RESERVOIR
ENGIEERING

HC-RESERVOIR COMPONEN RESERVOIR TYPE HC-RESERVE

Resevoir Rock Type

Reservoir Rock:  Clastic Initial Oil in Place
 Rock Type  Non-Clastic ( IOIP )  Ni
 Rock Properties Metamorphic
 NR = Ni x RF

Trap
Rock Properties :  Stratigraphic Volumetric Method
 Structur
 Porosity (  )  %
 Combination
 Saturation ( S )  %
Permeability ( K )  darcy Fluid Phase :

Material Balance
 Gas Method
 Condensat
Fluid Properties :  Oil
 Densitay (  ) Decline Curve Curve
 Viscosity (  ) Drive Mechanism :
 Formation Volume Factor (Bo)  Solution / depletion Gas
 Gas Solution ( Rs ) Drive Res.
 Gas Cap Drive Res.
 Water Drive Res.
 Segregation Drive Res.
Reservoir Condtion  Combination Drive Res. Recovery Factor ( RF )
 Pressure
( @ drive mechanism
 Temperatur
mechanisSetiap Drive )
Petroleum System
 The Reservoir Rock
• Must have sufficient porosity () to store the oil
• Must have sufficient permeability (K) to allow fluid
flow

• % = (volume of voids / total volume of rock) x 100

• Effective  = total volume of voids that are
interconnected

• K: measured in Darcy units (commonly miliDarcy) Kv

– Often measured as Kv and Kh due to grain orientation/
heterogeneity issues
Khz
• The perfect Reservoir rock:
– 10 – 30%  and 500 – 1000mD Khx
– Well sorted, medium-coarse grain size
– Laterally continuous with no poor RQ intervals/ facies
Diagram Komponen Penyusun Batuan Rersevoir
 The Source Rock

• This shale typically contains >1% of organic carbon, by weight.

 The Reservoir Rock:
Sandstone

• The layering in this sandstone may be the result of rhythmic climatic

changes in the shallow sea where this sandstone was deposited.
 The Reservoir Rock:
Limestones
• An exposure of modern limestone.
This limestone is only a few
hundred years old. It shows the
structure of coral and other
organic remains. Note the
numerous pore spaces.
• Burial of this limestone would
probably lead to reduction in
porosity as a result of
cementation,. Good quality
reservoir rocks, such as the
dolomite shown in another picture,
are created by dissolution of some
of the rock. This usually occurs
many millions of years after the
initial formation and burial
 The Reservoir Rock: Dolomite

• This is an example of an important reservoir rock type. Fossil

stromatoporoids have been hollowed out by the chemical
conversion of limestone to dolomite, creating pore spaces so
large that they are sometimes called “cavernous porosity”
 The Seal
• Commonly
evaporites, chalks
and shales.
• Relatively
impermeable
 Reservoir Rocks Properties

• Porosity
• Permeability
• Saturation
• Capillary pressure
• Rock wettability
• Tortuosity
• Compressibility, density and thermal
properties
 Porosity
“Is A The Fraction Of The Total Formation Volume That Is Not
Occupied By Solid Rock (i.e. Filled By Formation Fluid)”

• Definition:  = V p / Vb

(bulk volume) - (volume occupied by solids)

=
(bulk volume)

f

• In fractured rocks:

t = f + (1 - f) m m
• Measured in lab using core samples
• Estimated from density, neutron and sonic logs
 Measured in Lab. Using Core Samples
• Porosity
• Permeability
• Saturation

Water
Rock Sample Oil
(Core)
Solids/
Grains
Pore Throad
VITRIC TUFF ANALISA :
• PETROGRAFI
• SEM
Sumur : JTB-48
Kedalaman : 1922.75 meter
Nama Batuan : Piroklastik teralterasi

Foto Mikroskop Elektron Atas

Foto SEM secara umum memperlihatkan perconto
batuan piroklastik teralterasi dengan komposisi
utama fragmen batuan, kuarsa, plagioklas, felspar,
klorit, ilit dan gelas (konfirmasi analisis sayatan tipis
dan XRD). Porositas visual rendah, terdiri dari
porositas sekunder hasil pelarutan mineral gelas
dan butiran tidak stabil dan setempat porositas
mikro yang terbentuk di antara mineral lempung
klorit dan ilit.
Proses diagenesa terdiri dari penggantian dan pelarutan
butiran tidak stabil klorit, ilit dan kuarsa dan
porositas sekunder, kompaksi dan sementasi oleh
klorit, ilit dan kuarsa.
Perbesaran: x 86
Foto Mikroskop Elektron Bawah
Foto SEM perbesaran tinggi memperlihatkan
porositas sekunder hasil pelarutan (D-M, 3-8) yang
tersemenkan sebagian oleh kuarsa (K-L, 5-6; H-J,
7-8; D-F, 6-8). Ilit autijenik (A-C, 4-5; H-K, 3-4)
tampak hadir sebagai semen di antara semen
kuarsa.
Perbesaran: x 1000
 Combination Neutron-Density Logs
• Suitable for gas zones, shaly formations and in detecting
the gas-oil contact
• Opposite gas zones, density log reads too high and
neutron reads too low porosity
• In shale-free reservoirs:
-- The log curves separate opposite gas zones
-- Porosity = average of both readings
• In shaly reservoirs:
Effective porosity e = D - VshshD
e = N - VshshN
This provides a method for estimating Vsh
LOG ANALYSIS Estimated from density,
neutron and sonic logs

 Matrix and fluid densities

m and b are based on
reservoir type or from log
calibration with core data

m

b

f

0 1
Core Porosity
 Permeability
“Is a properti of the porous medium that measures
capacity & ability of the formation to transmit fluids.”

The rock Permeability k, is very important rock property because it control

directional movement and the flowrate of the reservoir fluids in the formation.
This rock characterization was first defined mathematically by Henry Darcy in
1856. In fact, the equation that defines permeability in terms of measurable
quantities is called Darcy’s Law.
Darcy developed a fluid flow equation that has since become one of the standard
mathematical tools of the petroleum engineer. If a horizontal linear flow of an
incompressible fluid is established through a core sample of length L and a cross-
section of area A, then the governing fluid flow equation is defined as :
 Absolute Permeability

Lab measurements

Area A P1 P2

Flow rate q

• Using liquid: k = q  L / [A(P1 – P2)]

• Using gas: k = 2q  L Pa / [A(P12 – P22)]

• Usually air is used for lab measurements

 Two-phase Oil-Water
Relative Permeability Curves

• In single-phase flow:
kf = k (abs. Permeability) 1

kro0
• In two-phase flow:
water kw = krw k Oil
oil ko = krok kr
Water krw0
• krw and kro are
both functions
of water saturation Sw 0
0 Swc 1 – Sor 1
Sw
 Estimating Permeability
from Well Logs
Vsh
• k is estimated from
cross-plots with Log k
porosity and
shale content 
Various rock types
• Correlation with
Log k
porosity for
various rock types


 Saturation
Defined as that fraction, or percent, of the pore volume occupied by a particular
fluid (oil, gas, or water). This property is expressed mathematically by the
following relationship:

Fluid saturation = total volume of the fluid

pore volume
Applying the above mathematical concept-
of saturation to each reservoir fluid gives ;
 Rock Wettability
General concepts

The wettability of a liquid is defined as the contact angle

between a droplet of the liquid in thermal equilibrium on a
horizontal surface. Is is a measure of which fluid preferentially
  
adheres to the rock. Depending on the type of surface and liquid
the droplet may take a variety of shapes as illustrated below.

“Water wet” . “Oil wet”

Oil ( θ θ

(
The angle θ measured through the water, is called the contact
angle. If θ<75°the reservoir rock is described as being water
wet, whereas if θ>90°it is oil wet.
 Wettability
• Information about wettability is fundamental
for the understanding of multiphase flow in
petroleum systems such as:

– Oil migration from source rocks

– Primary production mechanisms
– Enhanced oil recovery processes (water and
alkaline flooding)
 Rock Wettability

Contact angle  Wettability

(measured in water) Type
 < 75 Water- wet
75<  < 90 Intermediate
 > 90 Oil- wet
 Wettability – ESEM after coreflooding
“Outlet (and original core)” “Inlet”
Water spreads evenly- Hydrophilic surface Water forms discrete globules
“Water wet” - Hydrophobic tendency “Oil wet”

Water films

Water globules

20 50m
m

ennett et al., 2004 – Petroleum Geoscience

 Capillary Pressure

Interfacial
tension 
 cos

Wetting phase  Non-wetting phase

Pw Pnw r

Oil-water capillary pressure Pc = Pnw - Pw

Force balance: ( r2) Pc = (2  r)  cos

Pc = 2  cos / r
Drainage Capillary Pressure Curves

Capillary
Pressure

0 SwcH Swcm SwcL 1.0

Water Saturation
Capillary Pressure Hysteresis

Capillary
Pressure

0 Swc 1-Sormax 1-Sor 1.0

Wetting-phase Saturation
 Rock Tortuosity

• Definition: Tortuosity  = (Lt / Lm)2

• Tortuosity is related to porosity and formation
resistivity factor:  = F
 Compressibility
• Definition: c = - (1/V)(dV/dP) in psi-1 or Pa-1

• Rock solid compressibility cr is very low but pore volume

compressibility cp is significant

• Eeffective compressibility ct = cp + co So + cw Sw + cg Sg

Pore Volume
Compressibility
Pa-1

Porosity, %
Drainage Capillary Pressure Curves

Capillary
Pressure

0 SwcH Swcm SwcL 1.0

Water Saturation
Capillary Pressure Hysteresis

Capillary
Pressure

0 Swc 1-Sormax 1-Sor 1.0

Wetting-phase Saturation
 Other Rock Properties

Bulk Density:
• Definition: b = (1 - )r + (wSw + oSo + gSg)

• Bulk density from logs is used to estimate porosity

Thermal Properties:
• Specific heat and thermal conductivity of rocks and fluids can be
estimated from correlations
• Important in thermal recovery calculations
• Volumetric heat capacity:
Cvol = (1 - )r Cr + (wCwSw + oCoSo + gCgSg)
 RESERVOIR PARAMETER/DATA

Geologic data Petrophysical Data Reservoir Fluid data

- SUBSURFACE MAP: - POROSITY () - FORMATION VOLUME (Bo,

CONTOURS, ISOPACHS, FULTS, -PERMEABILITY (K) Bg, Bw)
BOUNDARIES (OWC, GOC, ETC) - SOLUTION GAS OIL (Rs)
-SATURATION (So, Sw, Sg)
- RESERVES MAP
- REL. PERMEABILITY - VISCOSITY (o, g, w)
AREA (A)
THICKNESS (H) (Kr vs Sw) - RESERVOIR TEMP.
BULK VOLUME (Vb)

Res. Environment Data Production data/

Injection data
- Botttom Hole Pessure (P) & Temp (T) - Qo, Qg, Qw, GOR, WC, Np,
Gp, Wp, vs T
- Flow rate (Qo, Qg, Qw vs Time)
- Iwi, Igi, Wi, Gi VS. t
- Well Mechanical & Surface data
 Reservoir Fluids
Original 1. Water
2. Gas (dry, wet, condensate)
3. Oil (light, heavy)

From Injection
• Hydrocarbon gas
• Miscible solvents (CO2, N2, LNG, LPG, etc)
• Chemical solutions (polymer, surfactant, alkaline)
• Water and steam
• Air or oxygen
• Microbial cultures and nutrients
 Gas Properties
Include:
Composition, molecular weight Mw, deviation
factor Z, density g, viscosity g , formation
volume factor Bg and compressibility cg.
Source:
• Composition is measured in lab
• Mw is calculated from composition
• Z and g can be measured or estimated from
correlations
 g , Bg , and cg are calculated from other
parameters
 Gas Deviation Factor Z

• Read
Pc , Tc

• Calculate
Pr , Tr

• Read
Z
 Gas Viscosity
1. Read gatm 2. Read g
 Other Gas Properties
• Density g = MwP / ZRT
In common units: g = 1.494 MwP / ZT in kg/m3

• Compressibility
cg= (1/P) – (1/Z)(dZ/dP)

• Formation volume factor

Bg = PstZT / PTst

In common units: Bg = 5.04 ZT / P in RB/MCF

where :
P = pressure in psia, T = temperature inR
R = universal gas constant = 8314 Nm/kg-moleK
 Oil Properties
Include:
• Composition ٠Molecular weight

• Gravity ٠Bubble point pressure

• Solution gas-oil ratio ٠Formation value factor
• Viscosity ٠Compressibility

Source:
• It is preferred that oil PVT properties are
measured in laboratory
• In some cases, they may be obtained from
correlations
 Definitons of PVT Parameters
• Solution Gas-Oil Ratio (Rs)
Amount of gas dissolved in oil, SCF/STB

• Bubble Point Pressure (Pb)

Pressure value at which gas starts to come out of solution

• Reservoir Oil Density (o)

o = ( osc + gscRs)/Bo API gravity = (141.5 / o) – 131.5

• Formation Volume Factor (Bo)

Reservoir volume occupied by 1 STB oil + its solution gas

• Two-phase Formation Volume Factor (Bt)

Reservoir volume occupied by 1 STB oil + its solution gas + liberated-
gas
 Formation Volume factor (Bo)

Definition: Volume of reservoir oil required to produce one barrel of oil in the
stock tank.
Can be calculated from the equation:

Bo = Vol . of oil @T & P (4)

Vol . of resultant tank oil @ standard conditions

Assume for now that stock tank conditions are the same as standard conditions. If
they are not the same, some minor corrections can be made to the Bo later.
Units: reservoir barrels/stock tank barrel
(res bbl/STB)
Magnitude: Always greater than 1.0
 Solution Gas Oil Ratio (Rs)

Definition: Standard cubic feet of gas dissolved in 1 stock tank barrel of

oil.

Units: standard cubic feet/stock tank barrel (scf/STB)

Note: Gas oil ratio is usually referred to in the oil industry as GOR

Rsb = solution gas oil ratio at the bubble point pressure

Typical Solution GOR for Petroleum Reservoirs:

Black oil < 2000 scf/STB
Volatile oil ~ 2000 - 3300 scf/STB
 Differential Liberation

Gas
• Pressure is reduced
in small increments

• Gas is removed after Recombined

each increment oil sample

• Represents pressure
depletion in reservior
Piston to change
Pressure
 Flash Liberation
• Reservoir oil is flashed
to low pressure
Gas
• Gas is not removed

• After equilibrium, oil Oil

and gas volumes
are measured

• Represents conditions Piston to change

in field separators Pressure
 Oil Formation Volume Factor

1 STB Oil

Reservoir
Bo RB oil + sol. Gas Rs
+ (Rsi-Rs)Bg RB free gas

• Bo is reservoir oil volume corresponding to 1 STB oil + solution

gas

• Two-phase formation volume factor includes both Bo and

liberated gas:
Bt = Bo + (Rsi – Rs)Bg
 PVT Variation with pressure

Rsi

Pb Pi
Pressure
Oil PVT Correlation
 Water Properties

• Total Salinity
• Composition
• Solution gas-water ratio Rsw
• Viscosity w
• Formation volume factor Bw
• Compressibility cw
• Formation water resistivity Rw
 Water Properties
• Salinity and compositions can be measured in lab
 w from correlation

• Rsw is generally low

Approximate value: Rsw = 0.004 P(1- 5x10-6s)
• Bw is usually 1.0 or could be estimated from correlation
• cw is estimated from correlation
• Rw can be measured or estimated from correlation
 Water Viscosity Correlation

Viscosity
cp

Temperature, F
 Water Properties
Formation Volume Factor Compressibility

Pure water
With solution gas
 Water Compressibility

Above bubble point:

cwa = - (1/Bw)(dBw/dP) from correlation

Correction for salinity and solution gas:

cwa = cwapure(1 - 1.1x10-6s)(1 + 0.009Rsw)
Rsw = 0.004 P(1- 5x10-6s)

Below bubble point:

cw = cwa + (Bg/Bw)(dRsw/dP)
cw = cwa + 0.004(Bg/Bw)(1 - 5x10-6s)
Reservoir Environment
 Pressure in the subsurface
• The force per unit area acting on a surface

Hydrostatic (imposed by a
column of fluid at rest)
Grain-grain Hydrodynamic (fluid potential
contact gradient caused by fluid flow)

Overburden pressure (S) = lithostatic pressure (p) + fluid pressure (f)

Column of freshwater = 0.43 psi/ft : normal

Abnormal (overpressured) = >0.43 psi/ft
Abnormal (underpressured) = <0.43 psi/ft
 Temperature in the subsurface

• Increases towards the earth’s core: geothermal

gradient
– Different lithologies will conduct heat differently:
thermal conductivity
– Additional heat added by decay of radioactive species
– Heat Flow = Geothermal gradient x thermal
conductivity Mineral Thermal
conductivity

Halite 5.5
Limestone 3 – 3.5
Sandstone 2.5 – 4
Coal 0.3
 Temperature – Pressure Relationship
Boyle’s Law: (P x V)/T = constant
• Fluid may exist in either the liquid or gaseous form depending on the PT
conditions.
• Above the critical point: only 1 phase may exist

c
evaporation
PRESSURE

gas
liquid

condensation

TEMPERATURE
 Mixed fluids in the subsurface
• Subsurface fluid may be a mixture of water and
hydrocarbon.
• Petroleum is a mixture of many types of hydrocarbon in
liquid or gaseous forms

Bubble point curve

Gas begins to bubble out of c
liquid
PRESSURE

liquid &
liquid Dew point curve
vapour Gas condenses
vapour

TEMPERATURE
 Tekanan Formasi & Gradient Rekah

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 TEKANAN FORMASI

Tekanan yang diakibatkan oleh

fluida yang berada di dalam pori
batuan yang terdesak keluar karena
adanya pembebanan diatasnya
(Overburden)
GRADIENT TEKANAN HIDROSTATIK
PEMBENTUKAN TEKANAN FORMASI

TEKANAN HIDROSTATIK
Tekanan Gradient :
u/ Air Murni :0.433 psi/ft
u/ Air Laut : 0.465 psi/ft

PEMBENTUKAN TEKANAN
FORMASI
Tekanan fluida dalam Pori batuan akibat
pembebanan dari proses sedimentasi
atau overburden
Overburden
Patahan

Kesetimbangan
MEKANISME TERJADI KICK

Terjadi Patahan

Patahan

Blowout
KEJADIAN AKIBAT TEKANAN ABNORMAL
(OVERPRESSURE)

Apabila Tekanan Abnormal

(Overpressure) bila didiamkan akan
terjadi :
1. Masuknya fluida formasi kedalam
lubang bor disebut “Kick”
2. Apabila Fluida formasi berupa
gas
maka lumpur yang kembali ke
permukaan mengandung gas
(berbuih), hal ini apabila kejadian
ini tidak ditanggulangi maka
akan
terjadi “ Blow Out”
 ESTIMASI TEKANAN FORMASI
Kondisi Tekanan Formasi Pada
Suatu Reservoir :
© Tekanan Formasi Normal
Gradient Tekanan 0.465 psi/ft
© Tekanan Zona Transisi
+ Perubahan dari Tek. Normal ke Tek.
Abnormal (Overpressured)
+ Terdapat Lap. Shale yang tebal
sehingga P. Form secara gradual
bertambah besar.
0 ft + Sebagai petunjuk bahwa akan
Tekanan Formasi
menembus
Tekanan Abnormal
Batuan Sand Tek. abnormal
Depth
Zona
Transisi
Batuan Shale © Tekanan Subnornal
+ Dibawah zona Transisi biasanya
Batuan Sand
mempunyai gradient Tek. yang kecil dan
10.000 ft
sering terjadi Drilling Break kadang-
Tekanan
kadang terjadi Lost.
 ANALOGI
TEKANAN FORMASI (Lab. Test)

S= T+P
S = Tekanan Overburden ( Sedimentasi )
P T = Stress pada Pegas ( matrik batuan )
P = Tekanan Fluida ( Tekanan Formasi )

T
 PERKIRAAN TEKANAN ABNORMAL
 Parameter Pemboran :

A. Perubahan ROP terhadap WOB  dijaga ROP dan WOB tetap konstan.

A
B

WOB
( Lb )
C

ROP
( Ft / Jam )

Keterangan :
A = Formasi Sand
B = Formasi Shale atau Clay
C = Formasi Sand
Catatan :
Apabila pada kondisi C maka sudah dipastikan adanya tekanan
Abnormal dan bisa TERJADI “ Drilling Break “
 GRADIENT REKAH FORMASI

 Untuk mencari Gradient Rekah Formasi

 Dapat dilakukan dengan “ Leak of Test “

Tujuan :

 Untuk mengetahui perencanaan program lumpur yaitu berat lumpur

maksimum yang di ijinkan pada setiap kedalaman

 Berat maksimum lumpur yang di gunakan berada diantara :

“ gradient formasi dan gradient rekah “

 Prosedur “Leak of Test” :

1. Bor 5 sampai 10 ft di bawah casing shoe

2. Tutup BOP

3. Naikkan tekanan permukaan secara bertahap denga slow ready

rate. Pada titik dimanan tekanan bleed off, matikan pompa.

 PENENTUAN GRADIENT REKAH FORMASI

H a s il L e a k o f T e s t d ip e r o le h t e k a n a n b le e d o f f s e b e s a r 9 4 0 p s i,

c a s in g s h o e d i p a s a n g p a d a k e d a la m a n 5 0 1 0 f t d a n b e r a t lu m p u r = 1 0 .2

ppg.

T e n t u k a n g r a d ie n t r e k a h f o r m a s i p a d a k e d a la m a n 5 0 1 0 f t

J aw ab :

 M a k s im u m T e k a n a n D a s a r L u b a n g B o r

= t e k a n a n h id r o s t a t is + T e k a n a n L e a k o f T e s t

= ( 0 .0 5 2 x 1 0 .2 x 5 0 1 0 ) + 9 4 0

= 3597 psi

 B e r a t lu m p u r m a k s im u m
3597 . psi
=  1 3 .8 p p g
5010 x 0 . 052

 D e n g a n m e n g g u n a k a n s a f e t y f a c t o r 0 .5 p p g , m a k a b e r a t lu m p u r

m a k s im u m y a n g d iij in k a n a d a la h :

= ( 1 3 .8 – 0 .5 ) p p g = 1 3 . 3 p p g

 J a d i g r a d ie n t r e k a h f o r m a s i a d a la h :
= 0 .0 5 2 x 1 3 .3 = 0 . 6 9 2 p s i/ f t
 TEKANAN HIDROSTATIS FLUIDA

 PenurunanRumusTekananHidrostatis

F Berat
.(
W )
P= = Berat(W)=  xVolume
A A

Berat
.(
W )
= Volume = AxD
Volume

.x.Volume .x.A
.x.D
P=  .x.D
A A

psi

P =  (lb/gal) xD(ft)x
0.433.
ft
lb
 xDx0.052,psi
8.33
..
gal

Keterangan :
P = Tekanan (psi) A = Luas (in2)
W = Berat (lb) D = Kedalaman (ft)
 = Densitas (lb/gal) F = Force (Gaya)
(Air Murni = 8.33 lb/gal) P Hidrostatis air murni = 0.433 psi/ft