Ambo University

College of Business and Economics

Research Method in Economics (Econ 5042)

June 2018

1
 UNIT 1. DEFINITION AND MEANING OF RESEARCH
1.1. Meaning of research
o Research has being described by many scholars in a lot of ways,
according to types and areas.
o Research is the process of applying reliable solutions to problems
through a planned & systematic collection, analysis & interpretation of
data.
oThe key words in this definition are planned and systematic, & they
are vital in the understanding of what research is about.
oIt then implies that, research is considered as a logical scientific
thinking.
oThis shows that any study that is undertaken by any person cannot be
regarded as a research until it is subjected to some scientific methods of
doing research.

2
o Research can also considered as a process of seeking answers to
imaginary questions using scientific methods of inquiry to produce good
result.
o It therefore shows that, when you use scientific methods of
research to solve problems, your outcomes will be more efficient
than the one arrived at using either trial-and-error attempts.
o Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing
information (data) in order to increase our understanding of the
phenomenon with which we are concerned or interested.
o Research is not about
o mere information gathering;
o mere transformation of facts from one location to another;
omere searching for information;
o a catch-word used to get information.

3
o Research is the systematic and objective analysis and recording of
controlled observations that may lead to the development of
o generalizations,
o principles or theories
o these result in prediction & possibly ultimate control of events.
o research is defined as a quest for new knowledge pertinent to
identified interest or problem through the application of the scientific
approach or process of investigation.
1.2. Significance of research
Some of the major significances of research:
1. Research, as an aid to economic policy, has gained added importance,
both for government and business.

4
2. Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in
economic system.
o For instance, government‘s budgets rest in part on an analysis of
the needs and desires of the people and on the availability of
revenues to meet these needs.
3. Research has its special significance in solving various operational and
planning problems of business and industry.
o Operations research and market research, along with motivational
research, are considered crucial and their results assist in taking
business decisions.
4. Research is significant for social scientists in studying social
relationships and in seeking answers to various social problems.
o It provides the intellectual satisfaction of knowing a few things just
for the sake of knowledge and also, it has practical utility for the
social scientist to know for the sake of being able to do something
better or in a more efficient manner.

5
1.3. Objectives of research
o The purpose of any research is to find solutions to problems through
the application of scientific procedures.
o The main purpose of research is to find out the truth which is not
known and which is yet to be revealed.
o Though each research study has its own specific purpose, research
objectives falls into a number of groups. These include:
1. To gain acquaintance with a phenomenon or to have an
understandings into it (studies with this object in mind are tagged
exploratory or formative research);
2. To show accurately the features of a particular individual, situation or a
group (studies with this objective are known as descriptive research);

6
3. To determine the rate at which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else (studies with this kind of objective in view
are known as diagnostic research);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between two or more
variables (such studies are refer to as hypothesis-testing research).
1.4. Characteristics of research
Some basic features of research include
o It is Systematic in nature: That is, the steps taken in carrying out
research have to be sequential and logical. And these steps can be
repeated by another researcher to ascertain the outcomes of the earlier
investigation.
o It is objective: This means that data gathered are recorded and
presented as obtained. The biases, prejudices, beliefs or interests of the
researcher and/or the society are not allowed to affect the research
result.

.
7
o Its report is precise: Research report does not encourage the use of
words that are capable of giving multiple interpretations & misleading
outcomes.
o It is tested/measured: Research is not speculative, but definite. It is
therefore imperative that data collected for research must be measurable
and tested against a specified hypothesis.
o It is replicated/ verifiable: Results or findings of a research can be
verified by another researcher that is interested in the report.

8
 UNIT 2: FOCUS OF RESEARCH
2.1. Steps in Research Process
Researchers may take the under listed steps in the course of carrying out
any research activities. These steps should not be considered strictly as
the only satisfactory sequence. Let us now consider these steps:
1. Identification of a Problem:
o It involves the discovery and definition of research problem or
problems which deals with issues of sufficient consequence to warrant
investigation.
o The problem must be such that can be solved through scientific
investigation. It should not be a problem which requires “Yes” and “No”
answers.
o Examples of research problems are: What is the rationale for the
persistence deficit budget in Ethiopia?

9
2. Review of Related Literature:
o After a problem has being identified, what follows is the review of
related literature.
o Literature review is the detailed understanding of the problem area by
consulting some books, magazines, journals, etc. already in existence as
regard the identified area.
oThis will enable you get some background information about the
problem area.
o The review of related literature will also help you in the following ways:
1 removes replication of what has already been done,
2 guide your formulation of research hypotheses or questions, and
3 sharpen your focus of the study as well as give you insight as to
whether the problem is researchable or not and the type of problems you
may encounter in the process and how to take care of them.

10
3. Formulating Hypotheses and/or Research Questions:
o This calls for clear and concise logical aspects of the problem in an
attempt to sharpen your focus on the problem.
o It involves the conjecturing of the relationship between the concepts
and variables identified in the problem.
o The hypothesis serves as a tentative answer to the problem. It can be
from the result of employing logical processes of deduction and induction
to formulate an expectation of the outcome of the study.
4. Selecting the Research Design
o This implies the selection of the appropriate research approach for the
investigation.
o A research design can be a specification of operations for the testing or
verification of the hypotheses under a given set of conditions and of
procedures for measuring variables.

11
o It involves the selection of, persons or things to be studied. Examples
can be descriptive survey, experimental, quasi-experimental, factorial
designs etc.
5. Collection of Data
o This stage aims at collecting relevant information for measuring the
selected variables and for building up a body of valid and reliable
knowledge about the variables or the research topic.
o It involves the construction and administration of the measuring
instruments.
o Prominent among the techniques are interviews, questionnaires,
observations, tests, rating scales, documentary sources and records. You
will learn more of these as we go on in this course.

12
6. Data Analysis and Interpretations
o Data analysis implies extracting the required information which will
serve to answer the research questions or test the hypotheses from the
data collected and presented earlier.
o The data collected must be reduced, arranged and presented in an
organized form for easy analysis, using suitable statistical techniques.
oThis will enable you to generate some research findings from which
conclusions and generalizations are drawn.
o You can employ the use of computers and/or calculators for easy and
accurate data analysis.

13
7. Discussion of Research Findings
o Research findings from the analysis of data are discussed to justify,
interpret, explain & further the development of theories for knowledge.
oThis discussion is done in the context and direction of the
information gathered in the process of literature review. You can
see that literature review is very important in this respect as it
makes for very sound and balanced discussion of findings.
8. Conclusion and Recommendations
o At this stage, you are expected summarize the whole research and draw
conclusions from your findings and to make policy recommendations of
your findings as generated from your samples to the larger population.

14
You will have to bear in mind that the generation of valid findings, making
of correct generalization and useful recommendations for possible
applications in the society brings about progressive development.
9. Writing the Research Report
o The outcomes of your research activity are made known to the public in
a form that is clearly understood.
o This entails a clear and concise presentation of the research
procedures.
2.2 Types of Research
Research are of various kinds. These categorizations are done on the
basis of goals, methods, evidences and analyses of research.
2.2.1 On the Basis of Goal
Researches that are grouped on the basis of goal are basic and applied
research. These are:

15
Basic Research:
oThis is a type of research, also known as fundamental research which
deals with the gathering of empirical data that can be used to formulate,
expand or evaluate theory.
o Its primary concern is to advance knowledge with no regard to it
practical application.
oIt is concerned with the construction and development of theories in all
fields of study which may lead to principles formulation and
generalization that brings about understanding.
o Outcomes from this type of research may be used to solve both
economic and social issues in the society. This type of research is at times
refers as pure research.

16
Applied Research
o As the name implies, it is the application of results (theories and laws)
from basic research to solve basic problems in all form of human
endeavors.
o For instance, the application of theory of demand in the field of
Health Economics to ascertain the demand for healthcare services in
the Ethiopia.
oIt is a research performed in relation to actual problems which occur in
the field and under the conditions in which they are found in practice.
2.2.2 On the basis of method
Here researches are grouped according to the technique of analysis (i.e.
methodology) engaged. Thus we have:
Experimental Research
o This is a case of research where the exogenous (self-regulated)
variables are manipulated to observe the effects on the endogenous
variables.
17
oIt serves to determine possible outcomes given certain conditions.
There are two groups, the experimental or treatment group and the
control group.
o The experimental group receives the treatment while the control group
may not receive any treatment. The difference is noted and used.
Descriptive Research
o This is a class of research that is concerned with the description and
interpretation of existing relationships, attitudes, practices, processes,
trends, etc., also with the comparison of variables.
o In this case, no attempt is made to influence variables. Descriptive
research is further classified thus:

18
1. Surveys
o This is a type of research which allows information/data assemblage
using tools and procedures known.
oThese methods of data gathering include questionnaires, tests,
checklists, rating scales, score cards, inventories, interviews, etc.
oThe study can be used to ascertain the nature of a phenomenon from a
relatively large number of cases.
o For example, if you want to know the opinion of people as regard
accessibility of healthcare in Ethiopia, survey research will be used to
reach the target audience.

19
o Most of the times, the entire population will be too large to handle. So
researchers use sampling method to get a true representative of the
entire population called sample that will give the attribute of the
population to make the needed inference.
2. Documentary Analysis:
o Documents and records are examined for relevant information. Official
gazettes, minutes of meetings, reports of panels and blueprints can be
examined.
o Content analysis of curriculum materials and classroom lessons can be
included as documentary analysis.

20
3. Case Studies
o You may decide to investigate a detailed account of an individual or
aggregation of individual cases may be treated as units under this type of
research.
o In other words, one may decide to carry out a study on an issue in any
field as the case maybe.
o For instance, a researcher may decide to do a study on the banking
sector as regard credit lending to customers, and one of the banks
designated as a case study, in order to resolve any problem relating to it.
Historical Research
o This kind of study has to do with past happening, which involves the
location, documentation, evaluation and interpretation of available facts
in order to understand past dealings.

21
o Understanding past events may lead you to better understand the
present and future events. It may also prevent future pitfalls, or even
suggest ways out of the existing problems.
o For example the economic history of a nation could be the focus of the
research to enable inference drawn, and generalizations made as regard
the way forward. In historical research, evidence from relics, artifacts,
documents, records, oral accounts etc. are usually relied on.
o If you are undertaking a historical research on the economy, the facts
will be economic related documents in the archive, libraries, etc.
oThere are two main sources of research information in a historical study.
These are primary and secondary sources.
o When evidence comes from direct source such as original documents,
photographs, eye-witness accounts, it is called primary source.

22
o But when a non-observer mediates between the original evidence and
the investigator as in books, research reviews, newspapers or stories by
non-participants, it is called secondary source.
o As a researcher; you should always determine the genuineness of the
evidence you are using.
2.2.3 On basis of kinds of evidence and analysis used
Research can be grouped according to types of evidence & analysis used.
These are multiple perspectives, quantitative & qualitative researches.
1. Quantitative Research
o This type of research uses information or data expressed through
mathematical signs.
o Most investigational studies are classified under this type of research.
o Data collection methods include tests of various types, experiments,
questionnaire, rating scales etc.
o Quantitative data are analyzed using either descriptive or inferential
statistics.
23
2. Qualitative Research:
o This type of research uses information about a phenomenon that is
expressed through verbal symbols.
o It makes use of qualitative data collected through interviews,
observations, artifacts, and documentary sources, audio and visual
materials among others.
o Data gathered in this kind of research are analyzed using transcription,
coding, historical and philosophical analysis.
o In most cases, if not all, some elements of subjectivity are used in the
explanation of data collected.
3. Multiple Perspective Research:
o Multiple perspective study is a combination of both quantitative and
qualitative research also known as mixed.
o This type of research is more understandable, yielding better results
that are more thorough than either quantitative or qualitative research.

24
 UNIT 3 RESEARCH PROBLEM
3.1 Research Problem Identification
In identifying a good researchable topic and successfully determining the
gap i.e. problem of research in the topic, three basic stages
considerations need to be taken into account. These include:
1. you need to identify a problem area of focus in your field of specialty,
2. make sure the identified problem is shaped into a form that is able to
be handled, and lastly
3. See that the nature of the problem can be empirically investigated.
3.2 Problem of Research: It’s Sources
Experience of the Researcher
o As an experienced researcher would have come across a number of
problems, imperfections, or some gaps that require solutions.

25
Review of Existing Literatures
o This is another good source of identifying problem area of interest or
research problem to work on.
oWhen you have a detailed review of existing literatures, researchable
problems will certainly be identified.
o Textbooks, thesis and dissertations, research reports in journals and
periodicals, conference papers and many others are examples of
literatures.
Scholars’ Views
o Consulting with professionals such as economists, sociologists,
educationists, research fellows, thesis advisers or supervisors, in any field
of study, can lead you in identifying your problem area.
o They will assist you in shaping your thinking to achieve a sense of focus
and to be articulate and concise in your research topic. This depends on
your interest in having an originally thought out problems.

26
Published government Policies
o Most intended government policies and views on the economy are
made known to the public via the various media (i.e. the electronic
medium, printing medium, etc.).
o After a careful review of these views and policies, one could pin-point a
good problem area of research and research problem from government
identified policies/ programmes.
Electronic (internet) sources
o With internet, you can gain access to libraries in any part of the world
to get current and updated information on any field.
oThis will avail you the opportunity of getting current research findings or
write-ups on any area of interest.
o You can read about various approaches employed in solving problems
relating to yours and you can adopt it, and apply it in your own
circumstances.

27
Uniform economic problems
o Almost all developing nations have economic problems. Problems such
as poor growth, wars and insurgence, etc.
o in fact, there are so many common problems facing developing nations.
These problems can be a source of good research work to any researcher.
3.3 Guidelines for Choosing Research Problems
Listed and explained below are some of the guiding principles for
evaluating, and selecting a researchable problem.
(i) Significance of the Problem
o any study you may need to undertake as starting researcher, must have
a research gap in which solution will be sought that will make meaning to
human existence.
o By so doing, contributions have been made to knowledge, and the
research has imparted (significance) on the body of knowledge.

28
For instance, studies on the type of budget to be adopted by the
Ethiopian government as a major fiscal operation are significant to the
nation‘s development.
(ii) How is researchable of the Problem?
o For a problem to be researchable, it should be able to have links with
some existing theories, laws or principles that will serve as foundation for
the work to be done.
o Also, researchable problem should be model that will involve variables
which can be defined and measured.
o A lot of life issues are still yet not researchable because, they possess
variables that cannot be estimated (not measurable).

29
o For instance, the effect of corruption on Ethiopia's economic activities
is yet to be captured in economics.
o Corruption as a variable is yet to have an acceptable proxy for capturing
it in researches. In most studies where “perception index” has been used,
the outcomes are still being contested.
oThis is because, perception in social-economic instances has a lot of
issues like reputation of the body doing it, the indictors considered, and
many others.
(iii) Problem of Research should be Suitable:
o You will be able select a problem of research that is capable of being
investigated, and fit into the peculiarities of the situation you intend
study.

30
o Also, suitability of research problem has to do with the availability of
require data on the chosen of study.
o Experience has shown that, a research problem could be significant and
suitable for study but, for want of data, it becomes not suitable.
o Accessibility of respondents and case studies is another problem. That
is, the researcher may not have access to some respondents for one
reason or the other as regard the study area, as such; the research may
be rendered useless for detailed study.
(iv) A Research Problem should be Viable
Research problem should be viable in that, it should be able to make
sense to whoever will have access to it.

31
 UNIT 4 RESEARCH WRITING
1. Research Topic
o The topic of any research work is an essential part of a research
process.
oThe topic of a research should encompass the essential elements or
concepts involved in the study in a concise form.
oThe topic should also indicate the scope of the study.
o The number of words in any research topics or titles should not be
more than twenty.
oSince the topic of a study is very important in the whole process of
research, choosing a research topic is dependent on the research
problem & researcher‘s interest, be it academic or a professional
research.

32
oit is vital to note that the problem & the researcher‘s interest would
show the direction of the study hence the care in chosen a research topic.
o In other words, the problem of research to be investigated more often
informs the topic of the research, after the area of interest has been
identified by the researcher.
1.1. How to Choose a Good Research Topic
o The topic of a research may be based on a number of considerations.
o It may be based on some real-world situation or by some
theoretical and intellectual interest.
o A research topic could emanate from any burning issues or
problems of the period.
oIt may as well be based on the interest and suitability of the
investigator.
oA researcher may be guided by some special consideration of his
own choice.

33
 oThe investigator may select a title base on the originality and
distinctiveness of the work.
o A research topic maybe based on the existing information gap in
various theories, principles, laws, and the investigator may choose his
or her topic to bridge that gap.
1.2. Process of Selecting a Research Topic
The flow chart as shown below is a representation of the steps to be
taken by any student or researcher before he/she finally comes up with a
good and appealing research topic or title.

34
2. Literature Review
2.1. Meaning of Literature Review
o a review of literature is a ―critical analysis of a segment of a published
body of knowledge through summary, classification, and comparison of
prior research studies.
o literature review requires an in-depth study of formal published
studies.
oIt is about acknowledging, surveying and a complete studying of other
scholars‘ published works that are related to the subject matter.
o In doing this, the researcher mentions or cites the name of the author
and his or her contributions to knowledge.

35
o The review of literature is very significant in academic writings. No
meaningful academic research is started and concluded without a good
review of literature related to the area of study.
oAs soon as a title for a study has been considered or chosen, the review
of relevant material related to the subject matter is commenced.
oFor a researcher to have a good grasp of whatever investigation or study
he or she is conducting, a detailed review of relevant literature is
paramount.
oLiterature review helps to facilitate the critical analysis of similar works
that have been carried out by other researchers.
oIn the process of doing a critical analysis of related study, it is possible
that the researcher identifies ―a study gap.

36
2.2. Purpose of Literature Review
o It provides a conceptual framework for the research
o conceptual framework is defined as a visual or written product, one
that ―explains, either graphically or in narrative form, the main
things to be studied—the key factors, concepts, or variables—and the
presumed relationships among them.
o Provides an integrated overview of the field of study
oIt would make the researcher have a wider view of the study being
conducted.
o Helps establish a need for the research
o May help clarify the research problem
o Researcher’s familiarity with the area of study

37
3.1.2 How to Write a Good Literature Review
o Show the way in which the authority you are reviewing his or her work
will be relevant to your own of area of study through concept, theory or
methodology adopted. Do an unbiased citation of papers with contrary
views.
oProve that you understand the relationship these studies and
paradigms. Where do they stand in relation to each other? How the study
you are undergoing is linked to other studies in that area?
o Studies you are citing should reflect recent work as well as those
considered of seminal importance. Cited scholarships should not be more
than ten (10) years old.
o If the research you are carrying out is a comparative or cross-
disciplinary, the researcher would have to explain how the different areas
of research can be pulled together in a meaningful manner to make
sense.

o
38
o A good documented literature review should consist of scholarships the
researcher has indeed reviewed, and a good understanding of the
authors‘ views or ideas.
o In writing literature review, citing remarks from unpublished and non-
peer reviewed studies should be seldom. The reason is that, the source of
some unpublished materials can hardly be known for verification. Also,
any study not peer reviewed and published, has violated one of the rules
of academic published work.
3. List of References
List of referencing is very important in any scholarly work.
o It shows the source of information documented in an academic report.
Where the list of references is not included in a report, the report looks
empty and may not be considered a good work.

39
1. American Psychological Association (APA) Style
o This referencing style is the form commonly used in most journals and
adopted by some institutions of higher learning.
o The APA style emphasizes the use of surname (last name) of the author,
the year of publication and if need be the page number(s) of the material
consulted within a text.
o For instance, (Ohioze, 2016:09)… in citation
o In the reference part the APA way is
Ohioze, W. F. (2016). Population Growth, Conflicts and Food Production:
Is Nigeria Food Secure? Journal of Review, 1, 100 – 110.

40
Harvard Style (Name and Year)
o the APA style of referencing modified the Harvard style. It was done to
improve on the quality of Harvard referencing style.
o Before the modification, the order of author‘s names in text citation
was not accord the necessary recognition. For instance, the names of an
author in citation could be mixed-up without identifying which was the
surname. Besides, articles dates of publication were not that necessary
then, compare to what was obtainable in APA style.
oHarvard style of referencing is about the inclusion of name(s) of author
and the year publication in the text when citing any scholarly write-up,
o for example, ―Ohioze (2016). Where a paper was co-authored by the
individuals, for instance Ohioze and Grace, the citation will be, ―Ohioze
and Grace (2016). However, there are times articles have than two
authors, maybe three, four or more, the citation take the form ―Ohioze
et al. (2016). In the reference section, all the authors who co-authored the
paper shall appear separately in the List of References.

41
Chicago Style (Kate Turabian Style)
o Chicago Style is also refer to as Kate Turabian Style. Kate Turabian is the
name of the person that came up the idea of this referencing method.
o She suggested end of chapter referencing with the following
modifications: i) That, every supporting statement and data should be
numbered sequentially, ii) That, at the end of the chapter, all the
numbered statements sequentially in the text, should be noted and the
corresponding sources written.

42
UNIT 5 DATA ACQUISITION
5.1 Sources of Data
5.1.1 Primary Data
o A lot of times, studies are geared towards achieving a specific purpose
and these studies may involve that the individual concerned creating his
own data.
o At time, there are cases where there are no data to assist the
researcher or where the information available is not adequate for the
study; this may necessitate the generation of data for the purposes of the
study.
oPrimary sources of data gathering are known to be connected with field
observations, questionnaires, personal interviews and experiments.
These methods allow the data to be collated in line with need of the
study.

43
5.1.2 Secondary Data
oThey are data that had been collected and processed by an individual or
organization and only extracted for use by the present researcher.
o Such data are usually gotten from either unpublished or published
sources, such as books, journals, office reports & statistics, newspapers,
magazines, institutions records, government gazettes, central statistics
authority, national Bank of Ethiopia etc.
o Information from this source is already made; such that users have no
control over it. So, researchers are advice to be cautious about their use.
5.2 DATA COLLECTION METHODS
o The methods employed in the gathering of data by any researcher in
the process of undertaking a study is a function of the research design
take on by the researcher.
o It is worth of note to know that the system of information gathering has
a serious effect on the research outcome.
The modalities of data collection are discussed below.
o
44
(a) Questionnaire Approach
o This approach is the commonest form of data collection in research.
o questionnaire is the vehicle which aids data collection. It involves the
distribution of question items that are expected to produce important
information from the targeted audience.
oThese responses are later transformed into computer readable form
known as data through a process called “codification‘” Codification is a
process in which answers to question item in questionnaires are
transformed into a form to be understood by the machine (computer).

45
(b) Observation Approach
othis is the direct watching or noting of a phenomenon in an ongoing
event.
o Data are collected directly and used for research purpose.
oThis approach is advantageous in that, it cater for problems such as
incomplete and distorted recall. However, the approach allows for bias as
result of human nature.
(c) Interview Approach
o It is a method where the interviewer asks questions that are already
prepared in a questionnaire form and record the respondent‘s response
in a space provided in the questionnaire. T
o the interview system is most appropriate when structured. The
organized interview has standardized questions that are formal and
questions to all respondents must be precisely the same and even
arranged in the same way.
o

46
oThis permits for uniform gathering of data from all the respondents and
as a result is easier compare to the unorganized interview. The organized
interview can be used to test hypothesis, it is not so the unorganized
type.
6. Report Approach
o This technique of data gathering has a link with the secondary source of
data.
o It is a situation where already documented information is pooled
together for a study purpose.
o Data collected through the secondary sources fall under this category.
These forms of data are commonly used but could be misleading in most
instances.

47
(e) Telephone Approach
o It is a process where questions are asked by the interviewer and the
respondent responds via a medium known as the telephone.
o In this case, the interviewer asks the respondents questions and
records them as approximately as possible. These responses are
subsequently used to generate the research data.
(f) Results of Experiments Approach
The experimental designs in research studies produce a lot of
information. The information gotten from these experiments are regular
happenings in researches.

48
5.3 RESEARCH DATA, ITS MEASUMENT
o measurement of research data is the observation and recording of
observations that are gathered in the course of the study.
o It equally entails assigning values to the human behaviour under
investigation. This measurement involves sorting, classification,
categorization of the properties and qualities of the human behaviours.
o These assigned values are numbers, symbols or values of unit analysis.
There are four levels of measurement in research data.
1. Nominal Level
o Nominal level is the lowest level of measurements obtained in research
studies. It is a scaling measurement that assigns numerical values to
attributes exhibit by human behaviour under investigation.
o For instance, the sex of a human entity (if Male=1, otherwise=0);
Marital status (married=1, single=2, separated=3, divorced=4,
widowed=5); etc.

49
2. Ordinal Level
o Ordinal level has features similar to the nominal level but added to this
is the element of rank ordering in terms of highest to lowest or biggest to
smallest.
o Ordinal level is a scaling measurement which ranks the perception of an
individual as regard issues under study.
o A good example of ordinal level is the Likert scale use in questionnaires.
Statement: Research method will not be helpful to me in the course of
furthering my studies.
Response options:
5. Strongly Agree
4. Agree
3. Undecided
2. Disagree
1. Strongly Disagree
o
50
3. Equal — interval or interval Level:
o This measurement scale (Equal-interval) also possesses the features of
the earlier discussed data measuring scales (nominal and ordinal levels).
o On an interval scale, the distances are numerically equal and they also
represent equal distances on the property being measured.
o Unlike the ordinal scale, Interval scales can be added and subtracted. A
good instance of the use of interval scale is the measurement of
temperature.

51
4. Ratio Level
o Ratio scale has the features of nominal, ordinal and interval scales.
o Some variables such as weight, area, speed, velocity, and many more
are sets of data which no other scale is appropriate except the Ratio
scale.
o The ratio scale has an absolute or natural zero (“0”) which has realistic
implication. When a measure is zero on a ratio scale, it indicates that the
variable has none of the things being measured..
o Ratio scales are better used in the laboratory. In the case of
questionnaires where there is no absence of opinion, Ratio scale will be
useless.

52
5.4 MANAGEMENT OF DATA QUALITY:
o Poor quality data can mislead and could bring about disastrous outputs
if conclusions are drawn from it.
o Therefore, data quality is important and should be taken serious when
undertaken a study. When data quality management is discussed, three
major issues come to mind and these are: measuring instrument, validity
of design, and reliability of design.
Measuring Instrument
o Measuring instruments are different and depend solely on the nature
of study and the research design of in place.
o There are different kinds of research, and each requires a particular
measuring instrument.

53
oFor instance, an experimental research requires a weighing instrument;
a survey research will need a questionnaire, while an observation
schedule is needed in observational research.
o In carrying out a study, a suitable and accurate choice of measuring
instrument in line of with the research design is very essential.
o Data quality is extremely susceptible to failure when an erroneous
instrument is used for data collection.
Validity
o Validity is a very important feature in a measuring instrument.
o It is the extent to which a test measures what it is meant to measure.
o Validity is a personal judgment that centres on experience and realistic
indicators.
ovalidity can be described in two ways namely: validity of design, and
validity of measurement (instrument and data).
o

54
Validity of Design
o A design is said to be valid if it able to produce the right reactions from
sample subjects; otherwise it is a defective design and may not produce
the right outcomes.
o Validity of design consists of two vital issues associated with designs
and that may result to problems; these are internal validity of design and
external validity of design.
ointernal validity of design finds out whether the research design actually
stimulates the require responses for which it was designed.
o external validity is concerned with whether the sample design is a true
representative of the whole target population and the problems caused
by external factors.

55
Validity of Measurement
o It is the ability of an instrument to measure that which is meant to
measure. That is, a research tool accurately measuring what it is detailed
to measure.
o For a measurement to be valid, it must be able to measure accurately
what it is meant to measure. The validity known are; content validity,
construct validity, face validity, etc.
Reliability of Design
o By definition, reliability is the extent to which a test is repeatable and
yields consistent outcomes.
o It is important to note that, in order to be valid, a test must be reliable;
however reliability does not guarantee validity.
o Research by its nature sometimes requires that data need to be
collected over and over again for the purpose of consistent results.

56
o Reliability is understood to be the consistency between independent
measurements of the same phenomenon.
o Reliability is therefore the steadiness, constancy and sureness of a
measurement tool.
Unit 6. Sampling theory and estimation
6.1. Sampling and Sampling Error
oIn research, sampling is a situation where the relationships that exist
between the study population and the samples taken from it are
examined.
o That is, it is concerned with the selection of a group of items from
within the target population to estimate characteristics of the population.
o In order words, the study of sampling is more encompassing than that
of sample.
o Scholars seldom survey the complete population because the cost of
doing just that is always too high.

57
o Sampling as a theory is based on two basic laws, these are i) the law of
inertia of large numbers, and ii) the law of statistical regularity.
o However, the former states that, the larger the size of the sample, the
more accurate the outcomes are likely to be, all things be equal.
o For the latter, it states that a moderately large number of the items
selected at random from the large group are almost sure on the average
to possess the features of the population.
o That is, if samples drawn from a population were done based on the
rules of randomness, the results thereof would definitely replicate the
population in which they are taken from. The law (i.e. the latter) is
basically based on random selection principle.

58
o Sampling has got its‘ good and bad sides, i.e. its merits and demerits.
o On the good side are; sampling is scientifically conducted, much
cheaper; the outcomes from it are reliable, okay in the conduct of variety
of surveys and it is time saving.
o On the other hand which is the demerit? There is chance of biasness,
problems of accuracy, lack of trained manpower; there is likelihood of
committing errors, samples inadequacy, etc.
Sampling Error
o Sampling has its pros and cons. On the part of its cons, there is the
likelihood of committing errors. This error is what is commonly referred
to in research method or statistics as ―sampling error.
oIn order to get information about the said population, a fraction of the
population which is often referred to as sample in most cases would be
drawn from the population for this purpose.

59
The results gotten from the sample estimate, when compared with the
outcomes from the population estimate, there is always a variation which
is the difference between the population parameter and the sample
statistic.
o This variation in results is due mainly to error from the sampling
process, and is therefore called sampling error.
o Sampling error is the difference between the estimate derived from a
sample survey and the true value that would result if a complete
enumeration (census) of the whole population were taken under the
same circumstance.
o In research, sampling error is caused by observing a sample instead of
the entire population. It is very useful in research, in that it gives the
researchers some ideas about the precision of their statistical estimate.

60
o For instance, the lower the sampling error, it means that there less
variability in the sampling distribution. This shows that the sample size
taken from the population is large enough to predict the behavior of the
population.
o However, if the sampling error is large, the implications will be opposite
to the case of a lower sampling error.
oIn research method, sampling error can be measured based on the
standard deviation of the sample. The standard deviation of a sampling
distribution of the mean is also known as standard error of the mean.
This is given as:


  ( x  x ) 2

61
oIt is important to notice that, the estimate of the standard deviation
means so much in the calculation of sampling error.
oThe greater the sample‘s standard deviation, the greater the standard
error i.e. the sampling error.
oThe standard error is also related to the sample size. The greater the
sample size, the smaller the standard error.
oThis is because; the greater the sample size taken from the population,
the closer your sample outcome is to the actual population itself. It is so
because the law of inertia which talks about large numbers has come to
play.
oHowever, in a situation where a complete enumeration of the whole
population is done, there exist no sampling error. In this case, the sample
statistic will definitely be equal to the population parameter.

62
6.2. Sampling Procedures
o When a researcher is commissioned to carry out a study as regard a
particular circumstance, that has to do with primary data, the investigator
will first and foremost identity the target population (i.e. the audience),
the required sample forms the target population for the study, the
sampling mode, and the rest.
oThese steps as listed are processes that a researcher is required to
follow in research. All these put together is refers to as sampling
procedures.
oBy definition, sampling procedure is an organized way of selecting
samples from the entire population, starting from population (i.e. the
focused population) identification to drawing of samples from the
population.
osampling procedure could also be called sampling design or sampling
process.

63
o The valid and meaningful generalization of sample materials to a
population depends very much on the unbiased nature and adequate
representation of the sample.
oHowever, the sampling procedure or design used in the process of
drawing sample determines a true representative sample.
o In the process of selection of sample items from the entire population,
the researcher put in mind the issue of probability.
oA selection process done in line with the principle of probability allows
every member of the study population an equal chance of being among
the sample is likely to be unbiased and to be more representative of the
population.
oprobability sampling is a necessary sin-qua-nor to correctly generalize
outcomes from a sample to a population.

64
Steps in Sampling Procedure
The process of sampling entrains the followings:
1. Identification of the target population
2. Specification of the sampling frame
o A sample frame is referred to as the source material or device from
which a sample is drawn.
3. Specification of the sampling unit:
o a sampling unit is any sample item that has been selected by whatever
sampling mode used.
4. Specification of the sampling method
o the sampling method or mode has to do with the sampling technique
the researcher would employ in the selection of a sampling unit.

65
5. The required sample size
o since sample is important in the generalization of information about
any large population, the size of the sample to be analyzed need be
determined by the researcher.
6. Selection of the sample
o this is the last stage of sampling procedures. After the researcher has
judiciously followed the steps as itemized, there comes the final aspect
which is the selection of the required sample from the population.

66
6.3. Sampling Techniques
oSampling approaches are at times also referred to as sampling methods,
or sampling modes or sampling techniques.
o Sampling techniques are organized ways of chosen a sampling unit in
the entire population use in research.
o These (i.e. sampling techniques) are categorized into two, namely
probability and non-probability sampling. The former is sometimes called
random sampling, where every unit selected in the audience has an equal
chance of selection like the others not chosen.
o On the other hand, the latter, is a non-random sampling in which the
probability of selection is not known or disregarded in the selection
process. This in away may lead to biasness in the outcome of the sample.
Discussed below are some of these techniques.

67
6.3.1. Probability Sampling Techniques:
1. Random Sampling
This is defined as a mode of sampling where the selection of sample is
done in a way that every member of the audience (i.e. the focused
population) has an equal chance of being drawn in the population.
2. Stratified Sampling
o this method, the entire population is first of all grouped into two or
more groups tagged strata following some rules (features) such as age,
sex, occupation, qualification, and many more.
o Thereafter, the elements (sampling units) are drawn from the individual
stratum, and everything put together to make-up the required sample for
the exercise.
oWhat differentiates the former sampling from the latter is the grouping
before the application of chance element.

68
3. Cluster Sampling
o This is also known as multistage or area sampling.
o Cluster sampling is a sampling technique which involves the grouping of
population into natural forms known as clusters. For example, the
stratification of population according to same schools, rural communities,
urban communities, states, regions, etc.
o Then, the specific numbers of clusters are randomly drawn to form the
needed sample.
o This mode of sampling is applicable where the population to be study
covers a wide region. Where a vast population is involved, getting the
sample is done in a successive manner, hence it is called multistage.
o But, it covers a wide zone, it is then known as area sampling.

69
o One noticeable difference between cluster and stratified samplings is
that, in cluster, the sample is drawn in group. Whereas, in stratified
sampling the sample is drawn on individual basis.
4. Systematic Sampling
o This is a sampling technique whereby the samples are drawn from the
members of the audience that are arranged in a special manner or in an
order either alphabetical or serial numerical, and then select the first
sample randomly.
o The other members of the sample, apart from the first one drawn
randomly, are selected at a regular interval. The regular interval (R) is
determined by dividing the number of the population (P) by the number
of the sample (S).

70
6.3.2. Non-probability Sampling Techniques:
1. Purposive sampling
o It is a sampling technique in which the researcher has in mind some
aims to achieve.
o By definition, a purposive sampling technique is a situation where
sampling items are drawn with the intention of meeting some
preconceived notions in mind of the researcher.
o this sampling technique is that, it is directed at the required audience,
and their opinions about an issue are first hand.
2. Judgment Sampling
oThis sampling method procedure depends on the judgment of the
researcher on the items to be selected as sample.
o The underpinning factor in this method is that, the researcher is
experienced and possesses a lot of skills in chosen the needed samples.
o It is most effective in a situation where the audience to be study is well
understood by the investigator.
71
3. Quota Sampling
o In this method, samples are drawn not randomly according to fixed
quota.
o It is a technique of sampling whereby the researcher assigns a
particular figure to be drawn from the various strata based on their sizes.
o There are two types of quota sampling. These are, proportional and
non- proportional.
o For proportional quota sampling, the sample is drawn based on the
sizes of the various strata. That is, if you have 100 females and 200 males
and you want a sample of 50 people in all. What proportional quota
sampling says is make the sampling on the basis of 20% female and 30%
male according to their sizes.
oWhile in the latter (non-proportional), you are less concerned about the
population size. What matters is selecting the required sample size from
the various strata irrespective of their sizes.

72
4. Haphazard sampling
o Also known as accidental or taken anywhere you find it.
o It is a sampling method in which the researcher without any lay down
rule as regard sample selection picks the sampling unit in a manner that
can best be described as haphazard, hence, the name haphazard
sampling.
o This sampling technique shortcoming is that, the sample selected may
not be a true representative of the population, and a lot of errors are
likely to be committed in the process.
5. Snowball Sampling
o Snowball sampling technique is a special method of sampling used
where the population is not accessible or not difficult to find.
o this sampling technique is useful for difficult-to-get-to audiences in
which easy access will not be possible.

73
6.4 Reasons for Sampling
1. Cost Effectiveness
It is typical of sample drawn through any good sampling method to
gather useful information at much reduced cost than when census is
used.
2.Timely Information
A sample often provides more well-timed information for the researcher
than when a census is used. The reason is that, sample has very little data
to be collected and analyzed.
3. Reliable and Accurate Information
Unlike census, errors are typically controlled more effectively in a sample.
With this element of error control in the sample, the information gotten
through a sample more accurate and reliable than information gathered
via census.

74
4. Nature of Population
The pattern and nature of the population under study could at time
determine the form of information gathering to adopt. The distribution of
the population in focus could sometimes make the mode of information
gathering to be sampling in nature as reaching the entire audience will
not be possible.

75