Unit 4-Biochemistry Carbohydrate Metabolism

Carbohydrate Metabolism
Deeba S. Jairajpuri, Ph.D.

Department of Medical Biochemistry
• Biochemical processes involved in the formation,
breakdown and inter-conversion of carbohydrates.
• Carbohydrates are the first-choice nutrients for energy

production (ATP), as they are simpler to metabolize
compared to fats or proteins.
• Carbohydrates may be:

• Used directly for energy by all tissues
• Temporarily stored as glycogen in the liver or in muscle
• Converted to fat, amino acids, and other compounds.
• Disorders of carbohydrate metabolism include diabetes

mellitus, lactose intolerance, and galactosemia.
Definitions
• Glycogenesis: the conversion of
excess glucose to glycogen.
• Glycogenolysis: the conversion of

glycogen to glucose (which could
occur several hours after a meal or
overnight) in the liver
• Gluconeogenesis: the formation of

glucose from non-carbohydrate
sources (amino acids and fats) when
the carbohydrate intake is limited.
• Liver is the main site for
gluconeogenesis,
• During starvation the kidney becomes
important.
Glucose Homeostasis
• ATP is needed continuously, but
nutrients are taken in sporadically
via meals. Excess nutrients are
converted into storage forms of fuel,
to be retrieved during fasting.
• Fuel is stored as glycogen,

triglycerides, and proteins, each
being catabolized when needed.
• Blood glucose levels are maintained

between 3.6 – 5.6 mmol/L (Glucose
homeostasis), to provide energy
for glucose-requiring tissues,
including brain.
fed postabsorptive gluconeogenic prolonged
40 Exogenous
(dietary)
Glucose
Used (g/hr) 30 gluconeogenesis
(lactate + a.a.)
From liver Gluconeogenesis
20 glycogen (mostly lactate)
10
0
4 8 12 16 2 7 42
HOURS DAYS
Blood Glucose in the Various Nutritional States

• Begins with glycolysis: formation of two
pyruvate molecules from glucose (glycogen).
• Pyruvates enter the Krebs/citric acid cycle

(oxygen-dependent), where they are completely
oxidized.
• Pyruvate loses CO2 to form acetyl coenzyme A
(irreversible reaction).
• Pyruvate to acetyl-CoA conversion requires
vitamin B (as cofactor).
• The hydrogen in carbohydrate is carried to the

electron transport chain, where the energy is
conserved in ATP molecules.
• Metabolism of one molecule of glucose yields

36 molecules of ATP.
• The energy is released from ATP through

hydrolysis.
Regulation of Glycolysis
Altered Homeostasis
 Drop in blood glucose levels (< 2.78
mmol/L):
 Drop in brain ATP levels, leading
to impaired brain function.
 In severe cases, this may
progress to coma or even death.
 High blood glucose levels:

 Tissue dehydration.
 Loss of important ions (water
movement into circulation)
 May also accelerate non-
enzymatic glycosylation (a
process of protein aging).
Hormone Regulation
• Catabolic hormones:
Increase blood glucose,
and include:
• Glucagon
• Growth hormone (GH)
• Catecholamines
• Thyroxine
• One anabolic hormone:

insulin, which decreases
blood glucose.
Glucose Homeostasis
• Insulin:
• An anabolic hormone,
• Lowers blood glucose levels and promotes
glucose storage by stimulating the synthesis
of glycogen and fatty acids.
• Secretion of insulin from pancreatic ß cells
is stimulated by transient high blood
glucose that results from digestion and
absorption of dietary carbohydrates.
• Glucagon:
• A catabolic hormone
• Responds to low blood glucose levels by
promoting the release of glucose into the
blood.
• Released from  cells of the pancreas,
which acts at G protein coupled receptors to
limit the synthesis of macromolecules and
drive the release of stored nutrients.
Glucose Homeostasis
Control of Insulin and Glucagon Release
3.6-5.6 mmol/L
GLYCEMIC INDEX
• Glycemic index (GI) represents the rise in a person's blood
sugar level, two hours after consumption of the food.
• The glycemic effect of foods depends on a number of factors,
such as the type of starch, physical entrapment of the starch
molecules within the food, fat and protein content of the food
and organic acids or their salts in the meal.
• GI is useful for understanding how the body breaks
down carbohydrates and takes into account only the available
carbohydrate (total carbohydrate minus fiber) in a food.
• GI is usually applied in the context of the quantity of the food
and the amount of carbohydrate in the food that is actually
consumed.
• A value of 100 represents the standard, an equivalent amount
of pure glucose.
• Foods with carbohydrates that break down quickly during
digestion and release glucose rapidly into the bloodstream tend
to have a high GI.
• Foods with carbohydrates that break down more slowly,
releasing glucose more gradually into the bloodstream, tend to
have a low GI.
Classification GI Range Examples
Low GI 55 or less fructose; beans; small seeds ; walnuts,cashews,
most whole intact grains ; most vegetables and
fruits
Medium GI 56–69 White sugar; whole wheat ; brown rice, unpeeled

boiled potato; raisins; prunes; cranberry
juice; banana; sweet potato
High GI 70 and above Glucose; high fructose corn syrup; white bread;
white rice; corn flakes; maltose;
maltodextrins;white potato

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Carbohydrate Metabolism

Deeba S. Jairajpuri, Ph.D.

• Carbohydrates are the first-choice nutrients for energy

• Carbohydrates may be:

• Disorders of carbohydrate metabolism include diabetes

• Glycogenolysis: the conversion of

• Gluconeogenesis: the formation of

• Fuel is stored as glycogen,

• Blood glucose levels are maintained

Blood Glucose in the Various Nutritional States

• Pyruvates enter the Krebs/citric acid cycle

• The hydrogen in carbohydrate is carried to the

• Metabolism of one molecule of glucose yields

• The energy is released from ATP through

 High blood glucose levels:

• One anabolic hormone:

Medium GI 56–69 White sugar; whole wheat ; brown rice, unpeeled

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