‫الكترونيات هندسية وتصميم‬

‫‪ ‬‬
‫‪.1‬مكبرات القدرة وتصنيفاتها (‪)class A,B,AB and C‬‬
‫‪.2‬مكبر العمليات ‪OP-Amp‬‬
‫‪ .3‬المرشحات ‪Filters‬‬
‫‪ .4‬والمذبذبات ‪Oscillators‬‬
‫‪ .5‬المازجات (‪)Mixer‬‬
‫‪ .6‬المعدالت ومزيالت التعديل (‪Modulators And‬‬
‫)‪)Demodulator (AM.FM‬‬
Lecture(1)

Power Amplifier
Class A,B,AB & C
Power amplifiers are large-signal amplifiers. This generally
means that a much larger portion of the load line is used during
signal operation than in a small-signal amplifier.
There are four classes of power amplifiers:
class A, class B, class AB, and class C.
These amplifier classifications are based on the percentage of the
input cycle for which the amplifier operates in its linear region.
Each class has a unique circuit configuration because of the way
it must be operated. The emphasis is on power amplification.
Power amplifiers are normally used as the final stage of a
communications receiver or transmitter to provide signal power to
speakers or to a transmitting antenna. BJTs are used to illustrate
power amplifier principles.
Class A:
• When an amplifier is biased such that it
always operates in the linear region where the
output signal is an amplified replica of the input
signal, it is a class A amplifier.
• Both large-signal and small-signal amplifiers
are considered to be class A if they operate in
the linear region at all times.

class A amplifier operation. Output is shown 180° out of

phase with the input (inverted).
Maximum class A output occurs when the Q-point is centered on the ac load line
Fig.(2)
 If the Q-point is not centered on the ac load line, the output signal is limited.
Figure (3) shows an ac load line with the Q-point moved away from center
toward cutoff. The output variation is limited by cutoff in this case. The collector
current can only swing down to near zero and an equal amount above ICQ.
The collector-to-emitter voltage can only swing up to its cutoff value and an
equal amount below VCEQ. This situation is illustrated in Figure 3(a). If the
amplifier is driven any further than this, it will “clip” at cutoff, as shown in Figure
3(b).

Q-point closer to cutoff.

Fig(3)
Figure (4) shows an ac load line with the Q-point moved away from center
toward saturation. In this case, the output variation is limited by saturation. The
collector current can only swing up to near saturation and an equal amount
below ICQ. The collector-to-emitter voltage can only swing down to its
saturation value and an equal amount above VCEQ. This situation is illustrated
in Figure 4(a). If the amplifier is driven any further, it will “clip” at saturation, as
shown in Figure 4(b).

Q-point closer to saturation.

Fig.(4)
Power Gain
A power amplifier delivers power to a load. The power gain of an amplifier is
the ratio of the output power (power delivered to the load) to the input power.
In general, power gain is:

where Ap is the power gain, PL is signal power delivered to the load, and Pin is signal power
delivered to the amplifier. Frequently, the easiest way to obtain power gain is from input
resistance, load resistance, and voltage gain. To see how this is done, recall that power can be
expressed in terms of voltage and resistance as

For ac power, the voltage is expressed as rms. The output power delivered to
the load is

The input power delivered to the amplifier is

By substituting into Equation the following useful relationship is produced:

for a voltage-divider biased amplifier:
and that for a CE or CC amplifier,

Since a CC amplifier has a voltage gain of approximately 1, the power gain is

For a CC amplifier, Ap is just the ratio of the input resistance to the output
load resistance.
The power dissipation of a transistor with no signal input is the product of its Q-point
current and voltage:

This is the maximum power that a class A amplifier must handle. The transistor’s
power rating must exceed this value.
• In general, the output signal power is the product of the rms load current and
rms load voltage. The maximum unclipped ac signal occurs when the Q-point is
centered on the ac load line. For a CE amplifier with a centered Q-point, the maximum
peak voltage swing is
 The rms value is 0.707Vc(max). The maximum peak current swing is

The rms value is 0.707Ic(max). To find the maximum signal power output, use the
rms values of maximum current and voltage. The maximum power out from a class A
amplifier is
Efficiency:
Efficiency The efficiency of any amplifier is the ratio of the
output signal power supplied to a load to the total power from
the dc supply.
Therefore, the total dc power is:
The maximum efficiency ,of class A amplifier is :

In general, the low efficiency of class A amplifiers limits their

usefulness to small power applications that require usually less
than 1 W.
Class B:
When an amplifier is biased at cutoff so that it operates in the linear region
for of the input cycle and is in cutoff f.or 180 it is a class B amplifier.
The class B operation is illustrated in Figure (5) where the output waveform
is shown relative to the input in terms of time (t).

Fig(5)
The class B amplifier is biased at the cutoff point so that
It is brought out of cutoff and operates in its linear region when the input
signal drives the transistor into conduction. This is illustrated in Figure (6)
with an emitter-follower circuit where the output is not a replica of the
input.
Common Collector Class B Amplifier
Fig.(6)
Class B Push-Pull Operation:
As you can see, the circuit in Figure (6) only conducts for the
positive half of the cycle. To amplify the entire cycle, it is
necessary to add a second class B amplifier that operates on the
negative half of the cycle. The combination of two class B
amplifiers working together is called push-pull operation.

Fig(7) Class B Push – Pull Operation

 This is a complementary amplifier because one emitter-follower
uses an npn transistor and the other a pnp, which conduct on
opposite alternations of the input cycle. Transistor Q1 conducts
during the positive half of the input cycle, and Q2 conducts
during the negative half.
When the dc base voltage is zero, both transistors are off and the
input signal voltage must exceed VBE before a transistor conducts.
Because of this, there is a time interval between the positive and
negative alternations of the input when neither transistor is
conducting, as shown in Figure (8)The resulting distortion in the
output waveform is called crossover distortion.
Biasing the Push-Pull Amplifier for Class AB Operation

To overcome crossover distortion, the biasing is adjusted to just overcome the

VBE of the transistors; this results in a modified form of operation called class
AB. In class AB operation, the push-pull stages are biased into slight
conduction, even when no input signal is present. This can be done with a
voltage-divider and diode arrangement, as shown in Figure (9). When the diode
characteristics of D1 and D2 are closely matched to the characteristics of the
transistor base-emitter junctions, the current in the diodes and the current in
the transistors are the same; this is called a current mirror. This current mirror
produces the desired class AB operation and eliminates crossover distortion
 Fig(9)
Biasing the push-pull amplifier with current-mirror diode bias to eliminate crossover
distortion. The transistors form a complementary pair (one npn and one pnp).
In the bias path of the circuit in Figure (9), R1 and R2 are of equal value, as are the
positive and negative supply voltages. This forces the voltage at point A (between
the diodes) to equal 0 V and eliminates the need for an input coupling capacitor.
The dc voltage on the output is also 0 V. Assuming that both diodes and both
complementary transistors are identical, the drop across D1 equals the VBE of Q1,
and the drop across D2 equals
the VBE of Q2. Since they are matched, the diode current will be the same as ICQ.
The diode current and ICQ can be found by applying Ohm’s law to either R1 or R2
as follows:
This small current required of class AB operation eliminates the crossover distortion
but has the potential for thermal instability if the transistor’s VBE drops are not
matched to the diode drops or if the diodes are not in thermal equilibrium with the
transistors.
AC Operation Consider the ac load line for Q1 of the class AB amplifier in Figure
(9). The Q-point is slightly above cutoff. (In a true class B amplifier, the Q-point is
at cutoff.) The ac cutoff voltage for a two-supply operation is at VCC with an ICQ as
given earlier. The ac saturation current for a two-supply operation with a push-
pull amplifier is
Class B/AB Power :
Maximum Output Power You have seen that the ideal maximum peak
output current for both dual-supply and single-supply push-pull amplifiers
is approximately Ic(sat), and the maximum peak output voltage is
approximately VCEQ. Ideally, the maximum average output power is,
therefore,

Since
Class C amplifiers:
Class C amplifiers are biased so that conduction occurs for much less than 180 Class C
amplifiers are more efficient than either class A or push-pull class B and class AB, which
means that more output power can be obtained from class C operation. The output
amplitude is a nonlinear function of the input, so class C amplifiers are not used for
linear amplification. They are generally used in radio frequency (RF) applications,
including circuits, such as oscillators, that have a constant output amplitude, and
modulators, where a high-frequency signal is controlled by a low-frequency signal.
Basic Class C Operation :
The basic concept of class C operation is illustrated in Figure(10). A common-emitter
class C amplifier with a resistive load is shown in Figure (10)(a). A class C amplifier is
normally operated with a resonant circuit load, so the resistive load is used only for the
purpose of illustrating the concept. It is biased below cutoff with the negative VBB
supply. The ac source voltage has a peak value that is slightly greater than so that the
base voltage exceeds the barrier potential of the base-emitter junction for a short time
near the positive peak of each cycle, as illustrated in Figure (10)(b). During this short
interval, the transistor is turned on. When the entire ac load line is used, as shown in
Figure (10)(c), the ideal maximum collector current is Ic(sat), and the ideal minimum
collector voltage is Vce(sat).
Basic Class C Operation
The basic concept of class C operation is illustrated in Figure (10). A common-emitter
class C amplifier with a resistive load is shown in Figure (11)(a). A class C amplifier is
normally operated with a resonant circuit load, so the resistive load is used only for the
purpose of illustrating the concept. It is biased below cutoff with the negative V BB
supply. The ac source voltage has a peak value that is slightly greater than so that the
base voltage exceeds the barrier potential of the base-emitter junction for a short time
near the positive peak of each cycle, as illustrated in Figure (11)(b). During this short
interval, the transistor is turned on. When the entire ac load line is used, as shown in
Figure (11)(c), the ideal maximum collector current is Ic(sat), and the ideal minimum
collector voltage is Vce(sat).

Fig(10)
Basic class C amplifier operation
Fig(11)
Power Dissipation :
The power dissipation of the transistor in a class C amplifier is low because it is
on for only a small percentage of the input cycle. Figure (12)(a) shows the
collector current pulses. The time between the pulses is the period (T) of the ac
input voltage. The collector current and the collector voltage during the on
time of the transistor are shown in Figure (12)(b). To avoid complex
mathematics, we will assume ideal pulse approximations. Using this
simplification, if the output swings over the entire load, the maximum current
amplitude is Ic(sat) and the minimum voltage amplitude is Vce(sat) during the
time the transistor is on. The power dissipation during the on time is,
therefore,

The transistor is on for a short time, t on, and off for the rest of the input cycle.
Therefore, assuming the entire load line is used, the power dissipation averaged
over the entire cycle is
Fig(12) Class C waveforms.
Example(1):
for the figure below :
a. Determine the voltage gain and the power gain of the class A
power amplifier. Assume β=200 for all transistors.
b. Determine the efficiency of the power amplifier .
Solution
Notice that the first stage (Q1) is a voltage-divider biased common-emitter with
a swamping resistor (RE1). The second stage (Q2 and Q3) is a Darlington voltage
follower configuration. The speaker is the load.
First stage: The ac collector resistance of the first stage is RC in parallel with the
input resistance to the second stage.

The voltage gain of the first stage is the ac collector resistance, Rc1, divided by the ac
emitter resistance, which is the sum of The approximate value of is
determined by first finding IE.
Using the value of determine the voltage gain of the first
stage with the loading of the second stage taken into account.

The negative sign is for inversion. The total input resistance of the first stage is equal
to the bias resistors in parallel with the ac input resistance at the base of Q1.

Second stage: The voltage gain of the darlington emitter-follower is approximately

equal to 1.

Overall amplifier: The overall voltage gain is the product of the first and second
stage voltage gains. Since the second stage has a gain of approximately 1, the
overall gain is approximately equal to the gain of the first stage.
Power gain: The power gain of the amplifier
can be calculated using

b. The efficiency is the ratio of the signal power in the load to the power supplied by
the dc source. The input voltage is 50 mV peak-to-peak which is 35.4 mV rms. The
input power is, therefore
Example(2):
Determine the ideal maximum peak output voltage and current
for the circuit shown in Figure below .
Solution :
The ideal maximum
peak output voltage is:

The ideal maximum peak current is

The actual maximum values of voltage and current are slightly smaller
Example(3):

Determine the maximum ideal peak values for the output

voltage and current in Figure .
Solution:
The maximum peak output
voltage is

The maximum peak output current is