Computer Networks

Network layer

Network layer -- May 2004 1

 Network Layer
 Design issues  General principles
 Prevention policies
 Routing
 Handling virtual circuit subnets
 Congestion
 General techniques
 Internetworking
 Jitter control
 Internet Protocols
 Multimedia or QoS

Network layer -- May 2004 2

 Congestion?
 Too many packets in (a part of) the subnet!

Network layer -- May 2004 3

 Congestion?
 Too many packets in (a part of) the subnet!
 caused by
o the same output line is used by many input lines
o mismatch between system parts
• slow processor
• low bandwidth lines

 tends to feed upon itself

 Congestion control <> flow control
o Congestion: global issue
o Flow control: point-to-point

Network layer -- May 2004 4

 Congestion: principles
Control theory viewpoint
open loop closed loop
 How? Good design  Monitor: where and when congestion?
o Make sure the problem o % packets discarded
does not occur o average queue length
 Tools o number of packets that time out
o Decide when to accept o average packet delay
traffic  Pass collected info to places where actions
o Decide when to discard can be taken = source of traffic
packets and which ones o explicit <> implicit feedback
o Make scheduling decisions o explicit: (extra) packet, flags (in other
in the subnet
packets), probe packets
 Adjust system operation
o Increase resources: bandwidth
o Decrease load: deny, degrade service

Network layer -- May 2004 5

 Network Layer
 Design issues  General principles
 Prevention policies
 Routing
 Handling virtual circuit subnets
 Congestion
 General techniques
 Internetworking
 Jitter control
 Internet Protocols
 Multimedia or QoS

Network layer -- May 2004 6

 Congestion: prevention
 Minimize congestion
Layer Policies
 Retransmission policy
Transport
 Out-of-order caching policy
 Acknowledgement policy
 Flow control policy
 Timeout determination
 Virtual circuits <> datagrams in subnet
Network
 Packet queueing and service policy
 Packet discard policy
 Routing algorithm
 Packet lifetime management
 See transport layer
Data link
Network layer -- May 2004 7
 Network Layer
 Design issues  General principles
 Prevention policies
 Routing
 Handling virtual circuit subnets
 Congestion
 General techniques
 Internetworking
 Jitter control
 Internet Protocols
 Multimedia or QoS

Network layer -- May 2004 8

 Virtual circuit subnets
 Dynamic approach: act when needed
 Admission control
o No new virtual circuits when congestion is signalled
o e.g. telephone network
 Route new virtual circuits around problem areas

Network layer -- May 2004 9

 Virtual circuit subnets
 Dynamic approach
 Admission control
 Route new virtual circuits around problem areas

 Negotiation when virtual circuit is set up

o About kind of traffic + service desired
o Resource reservation in subnet
• Line capacity
• Buffers in routers
No congestion
Unused resources

Network layer -- May 2004 10

 Network Layer
 Design issues  General principles
 Prevention policies
 Routing
 Handling virtual circuit subnets
 Congestion
 General techniques
 Internetworking
 Jitter control
 Internet Protocols
 Multimedia or QoS

Network layer -- May 2004 11

 General techniques
 Approaches: reduce traffic by
o Requesting senders
local measurements + info packets to senders
+ hope for ….

o Throwing away packets

local measurements + local actions to reduce load

Network layer -- May 2004 12

 Source based approach
 Basic algorithm
o Router monitors utilisation of output lines
• u recent utilisation: 0  u  1 f Instantaneous line utilisation
• good estimate of u a constant
unew = a  uold + (1 – a )  f
o In case of overload: unew > threshold
• Output line enters warning state
• Some action is taken:
– Warning bit
– Choke packets
– Hop-by-hop choke packets

Network layer -- May 2004 13

 Source based approach
 Warning bit
o Output line in warning state
• Warning bit set in header
• Destination copies bit into next ack
• Source cuts back traffic
o Algorithm at source
• As long as warning bits arrive: reduce traffic
• Less warning bits: increase traffic
o Problems
• voluntary action of host!
• correct source selected?
o Used in
• DecNet
• Frame relay

Network layer -- May 2004 14

 Source based approach
 Choke packet
o In case of overload: router sends choke packet to host causing
the overload
o Host receiving choke packet
• reduces traffic to the specified destination
• ignores choke packets for a fixed interval
• new choke packets during next listening interval?
– Yes: reduce traffic
– No: increase traffic
o Problems:
• voluntary action of host!
• correct host selected?

Network layer -- May 2004 15

 Source based approach
 Choke packets:
o Example showing slow
reaction
o Solution: Hop-by-Hop
choke packets

Network layer -- May 2004 16

 Source based approach
 Hop-by-Hop choke packets
o Have choke packet take
effect at every hop
o Problem: more buffers
needed in routers

Network layer -- May 2004 17

 Load shedding
 Throw away packets that cannot be handled!!
 Packet selection?
o Random
o Based on application
• File transfer: discard new packet
• Multimedia: discard old packet
o Let sender indicate importance of packets
• Low, high priority
• Incentive to mark a packet with low priority
– Price
– Allow hosts to exceed agreed upon limits
 Random early detection …

Network layer -- May 2004 18

 Load shedding
 Throw away packets that cannot be handled!!
 Packet selection?
 Random early detection
o Discard packets before all buffer space is exhausted
o Routers maintain running average of queue lengths
o Select at random a packet
o Inform source?
• Send choke packet?  more load!!
• No reporting
o When does it work?
• Source slows down when packets are lost

Network layer -- May 2004 19

 Network Layer
 Design issues  General principles
 Prevention policies
 Routing
 Handling virtual circuit subnets
 Congestion
 General techniques
 Internetworking
 Jitter control
 Internet Protocols
 Multimedia or QoS

Network layer -- May 2004 20

 Congestion: jitter control
 Important for audio and video applications?
o not delay
o variance of delay

Network layer -- May 2004 21

 Congestion: jitter control
 Jitter = variation in packet delay
 Compute feasible mean value for delay
o compute expected transit time for each hop
o router checks to see if packet is
• behind
• ahead schedule
o behind: forward packet asap
o ahead: hold back packet to get it on schedule again
 Buffering? Depends on characteristics:
o Video on demand: ok
o Videoconferencing: nok
Network layer -- May 2004 22
 Network Layer
 Design issues
 Routing
 Congestion
 Internetworking
 Internet Protocols
 Multimedia or QoS

Network layer -- May 2004 23

Computer Networks

Network layer

Network layer -- May 2004 24