RESEARCH PARADIGM

EPISTOMOLOGICAL AND ONTOLOGICAL

CONSIDERATIONS

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Research Paradigm refers to “the progress of

scientific practice based on people’s
philosophies and assumptions about the
world and the nature of knowledge”.

Paradigms offer a framework comprising an

accepted set of theories, methods, and ways
of defining data
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Reflection
What is reality / truth? (Ontology)
• How can we seek for the truth
• How do we conclude what is
the truth
What is knowledge? (Epistemology)
• How do we get knowledge?
• Where does knowledge
come from?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v
=kf8wGvunyG8
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The Research ‘Onion’

Source: © Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2006

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Research Paradigm
Positivist Non-positivist / Interpretivist
Elements
Positivism Constructivism Critical Theory Realism

Reality is real and Multiple local and “Virtual” reality shaped Reality is ‘real’ but only
by
apprehensible. It is specific “constructed social, economic, ethnic, imperfectly and
Ontology: objective, singular and realities” political, cultural and probabilistically
what is the apart from researcher gender values, apprehensible. Triangulation
crystallised
nature of reality? overtime. from many sources is
required
to try to know it

Findings true – Created findings – Value mediated findings Findings probably true –
researcher –
is objective by viewing researcher is a researcher is a researcher is value-aware
Epistemology: reality through a “passionate “transformative and
What is valid “one- way mirror”. participants” intellectual” who needs to triangulate
knowledge? They are being within changes the social any perceptions he Sobh & Perry (2005); Perry et al
independent from the world world within which or she is collecting (1999); Guba & Lincoln (1994)
what is researched being
investigated

participants live

Mainly quantitative In-depth unstructured Action research and Mainly qualitative methods
method to test theory interviews, participant observation such as case studies and
such as survey, participant convergent interviews
Common experiments, and observation,
Methodologies: verification of action research,
hypotheses and
grounded theory
research
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Research Paradigm
Features of research paradigms

Positivistic paradigm Non-positivistic paradigm

Tends to produce quantitative data Tends to produce qualitative data

Uses large samples Uses small samples

Concerned with hypothesis testing Concerned with generating

theories
Data is highly specific and precise Data is rich and subjective

The location is artificial The location is natural

Reliability (Statistical) Reliability (Procedural)

Validity (Statistical) Validity (Procedural)

Generalises from sample to Acquires insights / rich

population information
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Research Paradigm
Comparing paradigms

Characteristic Positivism Non-positivism

Questions that What? Why?
can be answered How much? How?
To examine To explore
Taxonomy
To determine To propose

Direct observation
Associated Survey,
Interviews,
methods Experiment
Participant observation

Predominantly
Data type Predominantly words
numbers
Findings Measure Meaning
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Theories

Empirical The Scientific Predictions

Generalizations Process (Hypotheses
)

Observation
s

Source: Singleton & Straits (1999: 27); Babbie (1995:

55)
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Deduction and Induction

Deductive Reasoning
 Application of a general theory to a specific
case.

Inductive Reasoning
 Arriving at a general conclusions through
observing a specific phenomena.
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Deduction and Induction

Deductive Reasoning

Theory

Hypothesis

Data Analysis

Findings
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Deduction and Induction

Deductive Reasoning
Example 1:
Statement 1: All doctors wear white.
Statement 2: Anita is a doctor.
Conclusion: Anita wear white.

Example 2:
Statement 1: If I have failed, I will unhappy
Statement 2: I have failed.
Conclusion: I am unhappy
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Deduction and Induction
Inductive Reasoning

O
b
s
e
r
v
a
t
i
o
n

Theme
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Deduction and Induction

Inductive Reasoning
Example 1:

Statement 1: Dave is always late for class

Statement 2: Dave never submit
Statement 3: assignment
Conclusion: Dave does not perform in the
exam Dave is not a good student
Example 2:
Statement 1: John’s daughter is an engineer
Statement 2: John’s son is a lawyer
Statement 3: John’s middle child is a doctor
Conclusion: All of John’s children are
professionals
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Research Paradigm
The positivistic
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Research Paradigm
The non-positivistic
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Research Paradigm
Why does paradigm matters?
Whether you take a positivistic or Social
Constructivism will influence:
 What research questions you ask /
objectives
 What methods you use to collect your
data
 What type of data you collect
 What techniques you use to analyse
your data
 QUANTITATIVE &
QUALITATIVE
APPROACHES TO RESEARCH

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Quantitative & Qualitative
Quantitative
 Quantitative study is an inquiry into a social or
human problem, based on testing a
theory
composed of variables, measured with numbers,
and analyzed with statistical procedures,
in
order to determine whether the
predictive generalizations of the theory hold
true
Qualitative
 Qualitative study is defined as an inquiry
process of understanding a social or human
problem, based on building a complex, holistic
picture, formed with words, reporting detailed
views of informants, and conducted in a natural
setting..
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Quantitative & Qualitative

Qualitative Research: Quantitative Research:

Action research Surveys

Case study Laboratory
research experiments
Ethnography Simulation
Grounded theory Mathematical modeling
Semiotics Structured equation
Discourse analysis modeling
Hermeneutics Statistical analysis
Narrative and metaphor Econometrics
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Quantitative &
0 Qualitative
Purpose

QUALITATIVE
QUANTITATIVE

• to describe and explain

• to explain and predict
• to explore and interpret
• to test, confirm, and
validate theory • to build theory
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Quantitative &
1 Qualitative
Research Process

QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE
• focused • holistic approach
• deals with known • unknown variables
variables • flexible guidelines
• uses established • “emergent” design;
context-bound;
guidelines
• subjective
• static designs; context-
free; objective
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Quantitative & Qualitative
Considerations
Select Quantitative if…. Select Qualitative if….
You believe that.. you believe that..
 There is an objective reality that can  There are multiple, constructed
be measured. realities that resist
measurement or categorization.
Your research question(s) is.. Your research question(s) is..
 Confirmatory or predictive in nature  Exploratory or interpretive
in
nature.
The available research literature is.. The available research literature
 Relatively large is..
 Limited or non-existent
You have skills in... You have skills in...
 Statistics and deductive reasoning, Inductive reasoning, attentiveness
and able to write in a technical and to detail, and able to write in a more
scientific style literary, narrative style
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Quantitative & Qualitative
Qualitative Quantitative
Objectives To understand the To quantify data so as to
underlying reasons and generalize findings from
motivations sample to population

Sample Small numbers of non- Large numbers of

representative case representative case

Data Collection Unstructured Structured

Data Analysis Non-statistical Statistical
Outcome Develop an initial Recommend a final
understanding course of action
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Quantitative & Qualitative

Example
“What leads some students to be more successful
readers than other students?”

 “ C an I predict who is likely to have reading difficulties?”

(Quantitative)
 “Why some students are more motivated to read than others?
(Qualitative)
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METHOD
APPROACHES TO RESEARCH

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Mixed Method
Definition

Mixed methods research is both a method and methodology for conducting research that
involves collecting, analyzing, and integrating quantitative and qualitative research in
a single study or a longitudinal program of inquiry.

The purpose of this form of research is that both qualitative and quantitative research,
in combination, provide a better understanding of a research problem or
issue than either research approach alone.
Creswell, 2010
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Mixed Method
A mixed methods researcher…
 Collects both quantitative and qualitative data
 “Mixes” them
 “Mixes” them at the same time (concurrently)
or one after the other (sequentially)
 Emphasizes both equally or unequally
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Mixed Method
Converge data:

Qual Results Quan

Connect data:
Qual Results
Quan
Embed the data:
Quan data
Qual data

Creswell, 2010
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Mixed Method

Typical situations in which mixed methods is used…

 To compare results from quantitative and qualitative
research
 To use qualitative research to help
explain quantitative findings
 To explore using qualitative research and then to
generalize findings to a large population using
quantitative research
 To develop an instrument because none are available
or useful
 To augment an experiment with qualitative data
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Mixed Method

What is the reason for using mixed methods?

 The insufficient argument – either quantitative or qualitative may
be insufficient by itself
 Multiple angles argument – quantitative and
qualitative
approaches provide different “pictures”
 The more-evidence-the-better argument – combined quantitative
and qualitative provides more evidence
 Community of practice argument – mixed methods may be the
preferred approach within a scholarly community
 Eager-to-learn argument – it is the latest methodology
 “Its intuitive” argument – it mirrors “real life”
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/288466730_From_Reality_to_Augmented_Reality_Rapid_Strategies_
for_Developing_Marker-Based_AR_Content_Using_Image_Capturing_and_Authoring_Tools/download
3 Mixed Method
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Triangulation Design
Concurrent Mixed Methods
Designs
QUAN QUAL
Data & Data &
Results Interpretation
Results

Embedded Design

QUAN Intervention QUAN

Pre-test Post-test
Data & Interpretation
Data &
Results qual Results
Process
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Mixed Method
Sequential designs
QUAN qual
Data & Data &
Results Interpretation
Results Following
up

Exploratory Design

QUAL quan
Data & Data &
Results Results Interpretation
Building
to

Sequential Embedded Design

QUAN
Before- Intervention After-
intervention Trial intervention
qual Interpretation
qual
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Mixed Method
Design Name Equal priority QUAN emphasis QUAL emphasis

Concurrent, QUAL+QUAN QUAN+qual QUAL+quan

triangulation

Concurrent, embedded n/a QUAN(qual) QUAL(quan)

Explanatory, sequential, QUANQUAL QUANqual quanQUAL

quan first

Exploratory sequential, QUALQUAN qualQUAN QUALquan

qual first

Sequential, embedded n/a (qual)  QUAN (quan)  QUAL

QUAN  QUAL  (quan)

(qual)