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Chapter Three Logic

Predicate logic remedies limitations of propositional logic by explicitly representing objects and their properties using predicates. Predicates allow statements to be made with variables and quantified. Predicates take objects or variables as arguments and evaluate to true or false depending on whether the property holds for that object. Quantifiers like universal ("for all") and existential ("there exists") are used to make statements about groups of objects. Predicate logic forms a formal language to describe properties and relationships between individuals represented as terms in predicates.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
65 views29 pages

Chapter Three Logic

Predicate logic remedies limitations of propositional logic by explicitly representing objects and their properties using predicates. Predicates allow statements to be made with variables and quantified. Predicates take objects or variables as arguments and evaluate to true or false depending on whether the property holds for that object. Quantifiers like universal ("for all") and existential ("there exists") are used to make statements about groups of objects. Predicate logic forms a formal language to describe properties and relationships between individuals represented as terms in predicates.

Uploaded by

Firomsa Tesfaye
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Chapter Three

Predicate Logic
Limitations of the propositional logic

Propositional logic: the world is described in terms of


elementary propositions and their logical combinations
Elementary statements:
• Typically refer to objects, their properties and relations.
• But these are not explicitly represented in the propositional
logic.
Example:
“John is a CS student.”
John a CS student

object properties

• Objects and properties are hidden in the statement.



1) Statements that must be repeated for many objects
Example: If John is a CS post graduate then John has passed
cs441
Translation:
John is a CS post graduate → John has passed cs441
 Similar statements can be written for other post
graduates:
Hana is a CS post graduate → Hana has passed cs441
Blen is a CS post graduate →Blen has passed cs441 …etc
 Solution: make statements with variables
– If x is a CS post graduate then x has passed cs441
– x is a CS post graduate → x has passed cs441

2) Statements that define the property of the
group of objects.
Example:
All new cars must be registered.
Some of the CS graduates graduate with honors.
Solution: make statements with quantifiers.
 Universal quantifier –the property is satisfied by all
members of the group
 Existential quantifier – at least one member of the
group satisfy the property
Predicates
• Remedies the limitations of the propositional logic
 Explicitly models objects and their properties.
 Allows to make statements with variables and quantify them.
• A Predicate is a declarative sentence whose true/false
value depends on one or more variables.
• The statement “x is greater than 3" has two parts:
 the object: x is the object of the statement
 the predicate/property: “is greater than 3" (a property that
the object can have).
Predicates
• We denote the statement “x is greater than 3" by P (x),
where P is the predicate “is greater than 3" and x is
the variable.
• “The statement P (x) is also called the value of
propositional function P at x”.
• Assign a value to x, so P (x) becomes a proposition
and has a truth value:
• P (5) is the statement “5 is greater than 3“.
so P (5) is true.
• P (2) is the statement “2 is greater than 3",
so P (2) is false.
Predicates: Examples
• Prime(x) = “x is a prime number."
 Prime(2) is true, since the only numbers that divide
2 are 1 and itself.
 Prime(9) is false, since 3 divides 9.
• C(x, y)=“x is the capital of y".
 C(Ottawa,Canada) is true.
 C(Harar,Ethiopia) is false.
• E(x, y, z) = “x + y = z".
 E(2, 3, 5) is ...
 E(4, 4, 17) is ...
Basic building blocks of the predicate
logic:
• Constant:- models a specific object
Examples: “John”, “France”, “7”
• Variable:- represents object of specific type (defined by
the universe of discourse)
Examples: x, y
• (universe of discourse can be people, students, numbers)
• Predicate:- over one, two or many variables or constants.
– Represents properties or relations among objects.
Examples: Red(car23), student(x), married(John,Blen)

• A predicate P(x) assigns a value true or false
to each x depending on whether the property
holds or not for x.
Example 1:
• Assume Student(x) where the universe of
discourse are people
• Student(John) …. T (if John is a student)
• Student(Tesfu) … F (if Tesfu is not a student)
…etc

• Assume a predicate P(x) that represents the
statement:
Example2 :- x is a prime number
What are the truth values of:
• P(2) T
• P(3) T
• P(4) F
• P(5) T
All statements P(2), P(3), P(4), P(5) are
propositions.

• Predicates can have more arguments which
represent the relations between objects.
Example:
• Older(Feven , Hana) denotes “Feven is older
than Hana”
 this is a proposition because it is either true or
false.
• Older(x , y) -‘x is older than y’
 not a proposition, but after the substitution it
becomes one.

Example:
• Let Q(x,y) denote ‘x+5 >y’
– Is Q(x,y) a proposition? No!
– Is Q(3,7) a proposition? Yes!.It is true.
What is the truth value of:
– Q(3,7) T
– Q(1,6) F
– Is Q(3,y) a proposition? No!We cannot say if it
is true or false.
Compound statements in predicate logic

• Compound statements are obtained via logical connectives.


Examples:
• Student(Hana) ˄ Student(Blen)
Translation:“Both Hana and Blen are students”
Proposition:yes.
• Country(Rasdashn) ˅ River(Rasdashn)
Translation:“Rasdashn is a country or a river”
Proposition:yes.
• CS-rep(x) → Student(x)
Translation:“if x is a CS-rep then x is a student”
Proposition:no.
Quantified statements
• Predicate logic lets us to make statements about groups
of objects.
 To do this we use special quantified expressions.
• Two types of quantified statements:
1) Universal /for all /
Example: ‘ all CS students to graduate they must pass
cs441 course”
– the statement is true for all graduates
2) Existential /exists/
Example: ‘Some CS students graduate with honor.’
– the statement is true for some people
Universal quantifier
• Defn: The universal quantification of P(x) is the proposition:
 “P(x) is true for all values of x in the domain of discourse.“
The notation x P(x) denotes the universal quantification of
P(x), and is expressed as “for every x, P(x)”.
Example:
• Let P(x) denote x > x - 1.
• What is the truth value of x P(x)?
• Assume the universe of discourse of x is all real numbers.
Answer: Since every number x is greater than itself minus 1.
Therefore, x P(x) is true.

• Quantification converts a propositional function
into a Proposition by binding a variable to a set
of values from the universe of discourse.
Example:
• Let P(x) denote x > x - 1.
• Is P(x) a proposition? No.Many possible
substitutions.
• Is x P(x) a proposition? Yes.True if for all x
from the universe of discourse P(x) is true.
Universally quantified statements
Example:-
A, CS-rep(x) → Student(x)
–Translation:“if x is a CS-rep then x is a
student”
–Proposition: no!.
B, x CS-rep(x) → Student(x)
–Translation:“(For all people it holds that) if
a person is a CS-rep then she/he is a student.”
–Proposition: yes!.
Existential quantifier
Defn: The existential quantification of P(x) is the proposition
 "There exists an element in the domain (universe) of
discourse such that P(x) is true."
The notation x P(x)denotes :-
• the existential quantification of P(x), and is expressed as
“there is an x such that P(x) is true”.
Example 1:
• Let T(x) denote x > 5 and x is from Real numbers.
• What is the truth value of x T(x)?
Answer:
• Since 10 > 5 is true. Therefore, it is true that x T(x).

Example 2:
• Let Q(x) denote x = x + 2 where x is real
numbers .
• What is the truth value of x Q(x)?
Answer: Since no real number is 2 larger than
itself, the truth value of x Q(x) is false.
Quantified statements
• Statements about groups of objects.
Example:
• CS-post-graduate (x) ˄ Honor-student(x)
–Translation:“x is a CS-post-graduate and x is an
honor student”
–Proposition: no!.
• x CS-post-graduate (x) ˄ Honor-student(x)
–Translation:“There is a person who is a CS-post-
graduate and who is also an honor student.”
–Proposition:yes!.
Mixing Quantifiers
• Existential and Universal quantifiers can be used
together to quantify a predicate statement;
For example: x y P(x,y) is perfectly valid.
• However ,you must be careful it must be read left to
right.
• x y P(x,y) is not equivalent to y x P(x,y) ,thus
ordering is important.
Example: x y Loves(x,y):everybody loves somebody
• y x Loves(x,y):there is someone loved by
everyone.
• However you can commute similar quantifiers;
x y P(x,y) is equivalent to y x P(x,y).
Precedence and scope of quantifiers
•  and  have higher precedence than logical operators(connectives).
Example: x P(x) ˅ Q(x) means (x P (x)) ˅ Q(x), it doesn't mean
x(P (x) ˅ Q(x)).
• (Note: This statement is not a proposition since there is a free
variable!)
Binding variables and scope
• When a quantifier is used on the variable x we say that this occurrence
of x is bound.
• When the occurrence of a variable is not bound by a quantifier or
set to a particular value, the variable is said to be free.
• The part of a logical expression to which a quantifier is applied is the
scope of the quantifier.
• A variable is free if it is outside the scope of all quantifiers.
• In the example above, (xP (x)) ˅ Q(x), the x in P (x) is bound by
the universal quantifier, while the x in Q(x) is free.
Summary of quantified statements
When x P(x)and  x P(x)are true and false?
• Suppose the elements in the universe of discourse can be enumerated as
x1, x2, ..., xN then:
•  x P(x) is true whenever P(x1) ˄ P(x2) ˄... ˄ P(xN) is true
•  x P(x) is true whenever P(x1) ˅ P(x2) ˅... ˅ P(xN) is true.
Predicate logic as formal language
• Generally predicates are used to describe certain
properties or relationships between individuals or
objects.
Example: Hana and Blen are sisters, the phrase “are
sisters” is a predicate(properties or relation).
 The entities connected this way Hana and Blen are
constants/terms.
• The arguments can be either variable or constants.
• In predicate calculus ,each predicate is given a
name, which is followed by the list of arguments.

• The list of arguments is enclosed in parentheses.
Example :- mother(Blen,Nati)
“Blen is the mother of Nati”
• The order of arguments is important.
• The statement mother(Blen,Nati) and
mother(Nati,Blen) have completely different
meaning.
• A predicate name followed by argument list in
parentheses is called an atomic formulas.
• The atomic formulas can be combined by logical
connectives (˄,˅,¬,→…) like propositions.
Example: cat(Tomi)→hastail(Tomi)
Translation
• Translating sentences without variables or quantifiers
is straightforward.
• Just remember that proper names
translate into individual constants or common nouns
into predicates.
• Be careful to combine the right number of arguments
with each n-place predicate.
• You combine two wffs together using the
connectives just like you did in Propositional Logic.
Here are two examples to get you started.
Example 1
• If Addis will marry Helen or Tigistu will, then Yonas won’t
Let MARRY = will marry, a = Addis, h = Helen, t=Tigistu
Translation:
(MARRY(a,h) ∨ MARRY(t,h)) → ¬ MARRY(y,h))
 Addis will marry Helen MARRY(a,h)
 Tigistu will marry Helen MARRY(t,h)
 Yonas will marry Helen MARRY(y,h)
 Yonas won’t marry Helen ¬ MARRY(y,h)
 Addis will marry Helen or Tigistu will
(MARRY(a,h) ∨ MARRY(t,h))
 If Addis will marry Helen or Tigistu will, then Yonas won’t
(MARRY(a,h)∨ MARRY(t,h))→¬ MARRY(y,h))
Example 2

• Blen and Addis left home but Thomas did not


Let L = left home, b = Blen, a= Addis, t = Thomas
Translation: ((L(b) ∧ L(a)) ∧ ¬L(t))
Blen left home L(b)
Addis left home L(a)
Thomas left home L(t)
Thomas didn’t leave home ¬L(t)
Blen and Addis left home (L(b) ∧ L(a))
Blen and Addis left home but Thomas did not
((L(b) ∧ L(a)) ∧ ¬L(t))
Thank You!!!

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