UNIVERSITY OF GONDAR

COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND THE HUMANITIES

Department of Geography and Environmental studies
Course Title : Geography of Ethiopia and The Horn
(For Freshman undergraduate students)
By: Addisu Baye Chekole
2013 E.C

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 UNIT ONE
INTRODUCTION
BASIC DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS
(3hrs)

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1.1. Geography: Definition, Scope and Themes
1.1.1. Meaning of Geography

 Difficult to forward a definition acceptable to all geographers at all

times and places due to:
• Dynamic nature of the discipline
• Changes in its scope and method of study

 Accepted and a working definition is

• The scientific study of the Earth that describes and analyses
spatial and temporal variations of physical, biological and
human phenomena, and their interrelationships and
dynamism over the surface of the Earth
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1.1.2. Scope of Geography
Geography:
 Explains the arrangements of various natural and cultural features
on the earth surface
 Holistic and interdisciplinary field of study contributing to the
understanding of the changing spatial structures from the past to
the future
 Its scope is the surface of the earth, which is the very thin zone
that is the interface of the
• Atmosphere
• Lithosphere
• Hydrosphere
• Biosphere
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  Approached by considering two continuums

A. Human-physical continuum
B. Topical- regional continuum

 Topical (systematic) fields of Geography

• Categories of physical or human phenomena as distributed
over the earth

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 Regional geography
• Concerned with the associations within regions of all or some
of the elements and their interrelationships
• An area on earth's surface marked by a degree of homogeneity
of some phenomenon

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1.1.3. Themes of Geography
Geography has five basic themes
Location
 Defined as a particular place or position
 Can be of two types:

A. Absolute location
• The location of a place is defined by its latitude and
longitude (specific geographic coordinates) or its exact
address

B. Relative location
• The position of something relative to another landmark
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Place
 The physical and human aspects of a location
 Associated with:
• Toponym: name of a place
• Site: description of the features of the place
• Situation: environmental conditions of the place
 Each place in the world has unique features that make it different
from the others expressed in terms of
• Landforms
• Hydrology
• Biogeography
• Pedology
• Characteristics and size of human population
• Distinct human cultures
 Aids geographers to compare and contrast two places on Earth
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Human-Environment Interaction
 Humans
• have always been on ceaseless interaction with their
natural environment
• No other species that has lived on our planet has a profound
effect on the environment as humans
• have adapted to the environment in ways that have allowed
them to dominate all other species on Earth.

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  Involves three distinct aspects:

A. Dependency
 Ways in which humans are dependent on nature for a living

B. Adaptation
 How humans modify themselves, their lifestyles and their
behavior to live in a new environment with new challenges

C. Modification
 Allowed humans to “conquer” the world for their comfortable
living

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Movement
 The study of transport and relocation of human ideas, culture,
habits, language and many more to the different parts of the world
 Its aspects/dimension are the
• Physical movement of people

• Transport of goods from one place on the earth to

another
• Flow of ideas that allows:
o Unification of the human civilization
o Promotes its growth and prosperity
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Region
 A geographic area having distinctive characteristics that
distinguishes itself from adjacent unit(s) of space
 Portions of earth's surface that have uniform characteristics
 The places sharing common physical and human features
 Could be a formal region and functional region

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A. Formal region
 Characterized by homogeneity in terms of a certain
oNatural phenomenon: soil, temperature, rainfall
oCultural elements: language, religion and economy

 Characterized by human-centered properties, such as a common

• Language
• Political system
• Physical properties

 Also known as a uniform or homogeneous region

 A nation is a formal region
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B. Functional region
 Also be nodal region, a region organized around a focal point
 Characterized by functional interrelationships in a spatial system
 Region is tied to the central point by:
• Transportation systems
• Communication systems
• Economic or functional associations
 Example the circulation area of a newspaper

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1.2. Location, Shape and Size of Ethiopia and the Horn
Horn of Africa Countries
 A region of eastern Africa, is a narrow tip that protrudes into the
northern Indian ocean, separating it from the gulf of Aden
 The easternmost extension of African land
 The region that is home to the countries whose cultures have been
linked throughout their long history which includes:

• Djibouti
• Eritrea
• Ethiopia
• Somalia 16
 Although they share many common features, there is also great
diversity among them

 In terms of size from all the horn of African countries

• Ethiopia is the largest
• Djibouti is the smallest

 The horn contains such diverse areas as the highlands of the

• Ethiopian plateau
• Ogden desert
• Eritrean and Somali coasts

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 Its coasts are washed by the
• Red sea
• Gulf of Aden
• Indian ocean

 It has long been in contact with the

• Arabian peninsula
• Southwestern Asia

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1.2.1. Location of Ethiopia

 The location of a country or a place on a map or a globe is

expressed in two different ways

1. Astronomical locations
 Also known as absolute or mathematical location
 States location of places using the lines of
• Latitudes
• Longitudes

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 Astronomically, Ethiopia is a landlocked country located
between:
• 3oN (Moyale) to 15oN (Bademe - the northernmost tip of
Tigray) latitudes
• 33oE (Akobo) to 48oE(the tip of Ogden in the east)
longitudes
• The east-west distance (15o) is longer than the north-south
distance (120)

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 The latitudinal and longitudinal extensions are important in two ways

 First
• As a result of its latitudinal extension the country experiences
tropical climate

 Secondly
 Due to its longitudinal extension there is a difference of one hour
between the most easterly and most westerly points of the country
 It is only for convenience that the 3 hours-time zone is used in all
parts of the country

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2. Relative location
 Expresses the location of countries or places with reference to the
• Location of other countries (vicinal)
• Relation of landmasses or water bodies

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 Table 1.1: The relative location of Ethiopia

Vicinal location In relation to water bodies

and land masses
Sudan to the west and northwest In the Horn of Africa

Southwest of the Arabian Peninsula

South Sudan to southwest

Djibouti to the east South of Europe

Somalia to the east and southeast Northwest of the Indian Ocean

Eritrea to the north and northeast In the Nile Basin

Kenya to the south

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 Implications of the location of Ethiopia are described as follows:

A. Climate
• Ethiopia is located implies that the country has a tropical
climate, though modified by its altitude
• Ethiopia relative to the Indian Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean and
the African and Asian landmass has also various bearings on
the climate of Ethiopia

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B. Socio-cultural
• Ethiopia is one of the earliest recipients of the major world
religions namely Christianity, Islam and Judaism due to its
proximity to the middle East, which was the origin of these
religions
• The linguistic and other cultural relationships, which Ethiopia
shares with its neighbors, reflect the influence of location

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C. Political
 The political history of Ethiopia has been considerably influenced
by:
• Geopolitical considerations of superpowers
• Adjacency to the red sea (a major global trade route)
• The middle east geopolitical paradigms
 As a result, Ethiopia has been exposed for external invasions in a
number of times; though the country resisted foreign intervention
and remains free of external domination

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1.2.2. Size of Ethiopia

 Ethiopia
• A total area of approximately 1,106,000 square kilometers
• 8th largest country in Africa
• 25th largest country in the world
• Extends about 1,639 kilometers east-west
• Extends 1,577 kilometers north-south
• About 0.7% of the country is covered by water bodies
• Its size also affects both the natural and human environment of
the country 28
Table 1.2: Advantages and disadvantages of Ethiopia’s large size
Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages
Possess diverse agro ecological Demands greater capital to
zones construct infrastructural
facilities
Variety of natural resources Requires large army to protect its
territory
Own extensive arable land Difficult for effective
administration
Have larger population size Difficult for socio-economic
integration
Home for diverse cultures
Greater depth in defense external
invasion

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1.2.3. The shape of Ethiopia and its Implication
 Countries of the world have different kinds of shape that can be
divided into five main categories:
• Compact
• Fragmented
• Elongated
• Perforated
• Protruded
 These shapes have implications on
• Defense
• Administration
• Economic integration within a country
 Whether some kind of shape is advantageous to a country or not,
however, depends on many other factors
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 Compact shape countries
• The distance from the geographic center of the state to any of the
borders does not vary greatly like Poland
• It is easier for defense, socioeconomic and cultural integration

 Elongated shape countries

• They are geographically long and relatively narrow like Norway
and Chile

 Fragmented shape countries

• They are divided from their other parts by either water, land or
other countries like Philippines, Indonesia, and Fiji
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 Protrude shape countries
• Countries that have one portion that is much more elongated than
the rest of the country like Myanmar, Thailand and Eritrea

 Perforated shape countries

• A country that completely surrounds another country like the
republic of South Africa

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 There are various ways of measuring shape of countries

 Indices of compactness
• Measure the deviation of the shape of a country from a circular
shape, which is the most compact shape
• There is no country with absolutely circular shape, those
approximating a circular shape are said to be more compact
• There are four most commonly used measures of compactness.
• These are:

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1. The ratio of area of country to its boundary length:
• Area-Boundary ratio
• The higher the A/B ratio, the greater the degree of compactness
2.The ratio of boundary length of a country to the circumference
of a circle having the same area as the country itself:
• Boundary-circumference ratio
• Measures how far the boundary of a country approximates the
circumference of a circle of its own size.
• The nearer the ratio to 1 the more compact the country is

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3.The ratio of the area of the country to the circumference of the
smallest inscribing circle:
• Area-circumference ratio
• Compares the area of the country with the circumference of a
circle that passes touching the extreme points on the boundary of
the country
• The higher the A/C ratio, the greater the degree of compactness

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4. The ratio of the actual area of a country to the smallest
possible inscribing circle:
• Area-area (A/A’) ratio
• The area of the inscribing circle is the area of the smallest
possible circle whose circumference passes through the extreme
points on the boundary
• Half-length of the longest distance between two extreme points
gives radius of the inscribing circle
• The nearer the ratio to 1, the more compact the country is.

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Table 1.3: Ethiopia's shape compared to its neighbors in the Horn

Country Area Boundary A/B B/C ratio A/C ratio

(km2) (km) ratio

Ethiopia 1,106,000 5,260 210.27 1.41 296.61

Djibouti 22,000 820 26.83 1.56 41.83

Eritrea 117,400 2,420 48.51 1.99 96.83

Kenya 582,644 3,600 161.85 1.33 215.28

Somalia 637,657 5,100 125.03 1.80 225.22

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1.3. Basic Skills of Map Reading
What is a Map
 A two-dimensional scaled representation of part or whole of the
Earth surface on a flat body
 Map reading encompasses a systematic identification of natural
features and manmade features
• Natural features: mountains, plateaus, hills, valleys, river,
ocean, rocks, plain etc.
• Manmade features: roads, railway, buildings, dam etc.

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 A special significance for geographers as primary tools for
displaying and analyzing spatial
• Distributions
• Patterns
• Relations
 Since these features cannot easily be observed and interpreted in
real landscapes, maps are essential to geographers

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Importance of maps
• Provide geographical details of regions represented
• Powerful tools for making spatial analysis of geographical facts
• Useful for giving location of geographical features
• Used on various disciplines
• Storage of the geographical data
• Potentially used to asses’ reliable measurements of the
geographical features such as area, size, distance etc

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Types of Map

 There are many types of maps according to their purpose and

functions

A. Topographical maps
• Depict one or more natural and cultural features of an area
• Could be small, medium or large scale depending on the size of
the area represented
• Contents of topographical maps depend on
• Purpose of a map
• Scale of a map
• Date of compilation
• Nature of the land represented 41
B. Special purpose/statistical maps
 Show distribution of different aspects such as
• Temperature
• Rainfall
• Settlement
• Vegetation etc.

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Marginal Information on Maps (Elements of Maps)
• Shown on a map to enable the reading and interpretation of the
geographical information of an area represented.
• This includes:

A. Title
• Heading of the given map which tells what the map is all about

B. Key (legend)
• List of all convectional symbols and signs shown on the map with
their interpretation

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C. Scale
• Ratio between the distance on the map and the actual ground distance
• Enable the map user to interpret the ground measurement like road
distance, areal sizes, gradient etc.
• Expressed as representative fraction, statements/verbal scale, and
linear (graphic) scale

D. North arrow
• Indicated with the north direction on a map
• Used to know the other important directions of the mapped area like
east, west, south, and west
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E. Margin
• The frame of the map
• Important for showing the end of the mapped area

F. Date of compilation
• Date of map publication
• Enables map users to realize whether the map is updated or
outdated

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1.3.1. Basic Principles of Map Reading

 In developing map reading abilities and skills, certain basic

principles must be applied by the map-reader to translate map
symbols into landscape images
• Map readers must have ideas about the symbol
• Every map symbol must be visualized by the reader
• Symbols refer to landscape features and knowledge of directions

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 Maps are covered in a series of lines that make up a grid

 The lines allow you to accurately pinpoint your location on a map

 Grid system
• Give an accurate description of your location.
• This description, which will be a series of numbers, is known as a
grid reference

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 UNIT TWO
THE GEOLOGY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
(4hr)

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2.1. Introduction
Geology
 An Earth science that studies
• Evolution of the earth
• Materials of which it is made of
• Processes acting upon them
• How earth's materials, structures, processes and organisms have changed over
time

 Also concerned with events that took place in the remote past

 A great deal of geological understanding must, therefore, be obtained by inference,

using clues from what can be
• Seen
• Measured 49
 Clues are not only the rocks and landforms which can be observed and
studied directly but also those provided by indirect methods such as:
 Geophysics
• Studying earthquake waves which can penetrate deep
beneath the Earth's surface
 Geochemistry
• Analysis of the detailed composition of rocks which can give
clues as to their origin
 Geochronology
• Methods for finding the ages of rocks, usually from the
radioactive elements they contain 50
Alfred Wegener (1880-1930)
 Was a German scientist and meteorologist
 He believed that the continents are moving
 He is most notable for his theory of “continental drift”, which he
proposed in 1912
 He believed that the earth's continents were once bunched
up/assembled together in to a single huge continent called Pangaea

 Continental drift means

• The continents have drifted and moved apart
• Continents were slowly drifting around the earth
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Pangaea
 A Greek term which means “all the earth or entire earth”
 Supercontinent that existed 250 million years ago
 All continents were once joined together in a single landmass
(supercontinent)
 Existed during Paleozoic and early Mesozoic era
 Began to break apart about 200 million years ago
 Divided in to Gondwanaland and Laurasia

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 Gondwanaland includes
• Africa
• South America
• India
• Antarctica
• Australia

 Laurasia includes Eurasia that is

• Europe
• Asia
• North America

 Subsequently fragmented and the pieces now accounts for earths current
continents 53
Alfred Wegener’s evidence (principles)

 The apparent fit of the continents

• The costliness of the continents appear to fit together like the
pieces of puzzle
• Example: the coastlines of eastern America and the coastlines of
western Africa

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 Fossil correlation
• Identical fossils had been found in the rocks on either side of the
oceans
• Example: Evidence of life…fossils of entire creatures where they
are located…ancient freshwater reptiles only found in two places:
southern tip of south America and southern tip of Africa

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 Rock and mountain correlation
• Identical rocks and mountain structures have been found on
either side of the oceans
• Geological structure (rock structure)…fossil distribution with
rock distribution
• Example: mountains of NE united states have exact type and
age of rocks with mountains of UK and Northern Scandinavian

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 Palo climate data ( past climate data)
• Coal has been found in colder regions and glacial evidence has
been found in warm regions
• Evidence of glaciers: when glaciers move on the surface of the
earth, they live evidence behind in the form of glacial striations in
deep scratches in the rock that shows the direction of ice move
that dragged over the surface

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Example-1: In Amazon rainforest in equator of South American
countries and stick jungles of central Africa
• In the past these places were located closer to the poles where
colder climate that supports glacier, but today, because of they
are too close to equator and getting sun light, the places are too
intense and hot

Example -2: Bituminous coal, sedimentary rock, that is made from

compacted and sediment plant remains, tropical plant remains, from
hot sticky humid jungles which is found in Northern Asia and
Antarctica
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2.2: Geological Process
 Geological processes are divided into two major groups:
A. Internal processes
 Also called endogenic forces
 Include
• Volcanic activity and all the tectonic processes of
• Folding
• Faulting
• Orogenesis (mountain building)
• Epeirogenesis
• Slow rising and sinking of the landmass
• Result in building of structural and volcanic features
like
• Plateaus
• Rift valleys
• Block mountains
• Volcanic mountains, etc. 59
B. External process
 Also called exogenic forces
 They are geomorphic processes
 Include
• Weathering
• Mass transfer
• Erosion and
• Deposition
 Act upon the volcanic and structural landforms by
• Modifying
• Roughening
• Lowering them down

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In Ethiopia
 Ethiopia's land mass is result of the combined effect both processes
 Geological history of Ethiopia and the horn will be dealt
chronologically starting from the oldest era of the earth's history
to the recent

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 2.3. Geological Time Scale and Age Dating Techniques

 Geological history is divided in to eras

 Each era is divided into periods
 The eras are given names that indicate the kind of life that existed in
them
• Paleozoic Era (ancient life): the age of invertebrates
• Mesozoic Era (the middle life): the age of reptiles
• Cenozoic Era (recent life): the age of mammals
 Earth is believed to have been formed approximately 4.5 billion
years ago
 The earliest forms of life were thought to have originated
approximately 3.5 billion years ago

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Geological time scale
 Describe the geology and history of life on earth
 Divisions basically differ from each other in such characteristics as
• Relative position of land and sea
• Kind of climate
• Kind of animal and plant life that developed and
existed
 Difficult to measure precisely
 Do not usually consist of a uniform length of time
 Built largely on the basis of life and evolution
 Measures time on a scale involving four main units
 Division of time units is usually based on the occurrence of
significant geological events (example: mass extinctions)

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 Eon
• Largest period of geological time

 Eras
• Periods are combined to make subdivisions

 Periods
• Epochs are clumped together into larger units

 Epoch
• Smallest unit of time on the scale
• Encompasses a period of millions of years
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65
Age Dating Techniques

 Two techniques of knowing the age of rocks:

A. Relative Dating
 Uses geological evidence to assign comparative ages of fossils
 Use two ways to know the relative age of a rock
• One way-look at any fossils the rock may contain
• Second way is to use the "what is on top of the older rocks?
 But these two methods only give the relative age of rocks -which
one is younger and which is older

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B. Absolute Dating
 Determining the actual age of rock/ fossil using radioactive
decay
 Age of a rock in years
 Determine the absolute age (exact age) of rock using radiometric
dating
 Geologists find absolute ages by measuring the amount of certain
radioactive elements in the rock
• When rocks are formed, small amounts of radioactive
elements usually get included
• As time passes, the "parent" radioactive elements change at a
regular rate into non-radioactive "daughter" elements.
• Thus the older a rock is the larger the number of daughter
elements and the smaller the number of parent elements are
found in the rock

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 At the end of the period constituting one half-life, half of the original
quantity of radioactive element has decayed; after another half-life,
half of what was left is halved again, leaving one-fourth of the
original, and so on

 Two of the major techniques include:

A. Carbon-14 Technique
 Upon the organism's death, carbon-14 begins to disintegrate at
a known rate, and no further replacement of carbon from
atmospheric carbon dioxide can take place
 Carbon-14 has half-life of 5730 years
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B. Potassium-Argon Technique
 The decay is widely used for dating rocks
 Geologists are able to date entire rock samples in this way,
because potassium-40 is abundant in micas, feldspars, and
hornblendes.
 Leakage of argon is a problem if the rock has been exposed to
temperatures above 125° C (257° F), because the age of the rock
will then reflect the last episode of heating rather than the time
of original rock formation

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 2.4. Geological Processes and the Resulting Landforms of Ethiopia
and the Horn

2.4.1.Precambrian Era Geologic Processes

 Span of time before life appeared
 From 4.5 billion - 600 million years ago
 Covers 5/6th of the earth's history
 Limited knowledge of the events due to:
• Its remoteness in time
• Absence of well-preserved fossils
 Major geologic event was orogenesis
• Intense folding
• Intrusive igneous activity…when magma cools slowly below earth’s surface
• Formation of huge mountain ranges
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 In between the orogenic periods and after the last orogenesis:
• Long periods of denudation……reduces mountains to near-
level (pene-plained)….was later covered by younger rock
formations

 Ethiopia rocks belonging to this Era are found beneath all other
rocks, forming the basement rocks

 Rocks had been subjected to

• Pressure and heat from overlying weight
• Earth movements (folding, orogenesis)
• Intrusive igneous activity
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 Then, the original rocks (both sedimentary and igneous) were
altered into metamorphic rocks of varying stages of metamorphism

 The processes have allowed mineralization and crystal formation,

 The rocks are also collectively described as crystalline rocks

 The Precambrian rocks are overlaid by recent rock formations

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 Precambrian rocks covering 25% of the land mass of Ethiopia found in
the following areas:
A. Northern part
• Western lowlands, parts of northern and central Tigray

B. Western part
• Gambella, Benishangul-Gumuz (Metekel and Asossa), western
Gojjam, western Wellega, Illuababora, and Abay gorge
C. Southern part
• Guji, southern Omo, and parts of southern Bale and Borena

D. Eastern part
• Eastern Hararghe
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2.4.2. Paleozoic Era Geologic Processes
 From 600 - 225 million years ago
 Lasted for about 375 million years
 Major geological process was denudation
 Denudation: collective process of:
• Weathering-breaking down of rocks
• Mass movement-transfer of rocks due to gravity
• Erosion-removals of materials

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 Gigantic mountains that were formed by the precambrian
orogeny were
• Subjected to intense and prolonged denudation
• Reduced to a “pene-plained” surface
 The sediments were transported
• Southward-to form continental (in Africa)
• Eastward- for marine deposits
 Because of the limited deposition within Ethiopia, rocks
belonging to this Era are rare in the country

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2.4.3. Mesozoic Era Geologic Processes
 From 225-70 million years ago
 Lasted for about 155 million years
 Major geological process was slows sinking and rising
(epeirogenesis) of the landmass
 Epeirogenesis affected the whole present-day
• Horn of Africa
• Arabian landmass

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  Land was tilted eastward and therefore
• Lower in the southeast
• Higher in the northwest
 As the land sank slowly, the sea invaded it starting from Somalia
and Ogaden and slowly spreading northwestward
 This was in late Triassic and continued up to Jurassic period

 Mesozoic rocks are considered to have the greatest potential for oil
and gas deposits

 Through time, overlying rocks and by cementing minerals compacted

to form sandstone and limestone layers respectively
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These are known as the Adigrat sand stone and Hintalo

limestone layers

Due to epeirogenesis, the regression of the sea began in the

Upper Jurassic and continued throughout cretaceous period

In the country sedimentation ended with the deposition of clay,

silt, sand conglomerate that were laid over the Hintalo limestone

78
By the end of the Mesozoic Era, when the land emerged out of the sea, three

major sedimentary formations were laid and formed upon the precambrian

rock:
• Adigrat sand stone -lower sandstone
• Hintalo limestone
• Upper Sandstone-uppermost layer

Age and thickness of the sandstone layers vary in a southeast - Northwest

direction due to:

Tilting of the landmass during the transgression and regression of the sea

 The direction of the invading and retreating sea

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 Therefore,
 Adigrat sandstone is
• Older and thicker in the southeast
• Decreases in age and thickness northwestward
• Upper sandstone is
• Thicker and younger in the southeast
• Older and thinner northwest

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 The transgressing sea and Mesozoic sediments nearly covered the
whole of Ethiopia

 In most parts of Ethiopia, the Mesozoic rocks are overlaid by the

Cenozoic rocks

 The old marine sediments are extensively found in the Southeast

lowlands

 The Mesozoic sedimentary rocks cover 25% of the land mass of the
country

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Figure 2.1. Geological map of Ethiopia

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2.4.4. Cenozoic Era Geologic Processes
From 70 million years ago - present
The most recent of the geologic Eras
Major geological events were tectonic and volcanic activities that
making of the present-day landmass of Ethiopia and the Horn of
Africa
The land was subjected to three major geologic events
These geologic activities are
• Uplifting of the Arabo-Ethiopian landmass and outpouring of
huge quantity of lava
• Formation of the Rift Valley
• Quaternary volcanism and deposition 83
A.Uplifting of the Arabo-Ethiopian landmass and outpouring of
lava flood
• A continuation of the slow rise that began in the upper jurassic
and cretaceous periods
• Uplifting continued to the paleocene and oligocene epoch of the
tertiary period
• Greatest uplift was in central Ethiopia (up to 2,000 m.a.s.l)
• Occurred during the eocene epoch
• Was of an epeirogenic character
• This immense tectonic force---fractured the crust…Huge quantity
of lava came out….widely and extensively covered a large part
of:
• Ethiopian plateau surface
• Floor of the present-day rift valley

84
 The mass of lava formed many and huge volcanic mountains‟
towering the flat basaltic plateau
 This volcanic material is known as Trappean lava or Trap Series
lava that is
• Not dissected by erosion
• Makes the Ethiopian plateau had flat and nearly horizontal
 This is an expression of the
• Pene-planed precambrian surfaces
• The smothering effect of the mesozoic deposition
• The spreading of the trap series lava over the mesozoic
sediments

85
B. Formation of the rift valley
• Related with the theory of plate tectonics
• Formed when tension widened the fractures, the central part of
the landmass collapsed to form an extensive structural depression
 Plate tectonics
 Lateral movement of the crust in opposite directions producing
tensional forces that caused parallel fractures or faults on the
sides of the up-arched swell

86
Figure 2.2.The Ethiopian and East African Rift Valley systems

87
Major faulting movement
• Began in the late oligocene and miocene epochs of the
Cenozoic era
• Affecting the whole African rift system, including that of
Ethiopia and the gulf of Aden
• Red sea and the gulf of Aden were connected
• Afar depression was down-faulted
• Danakil Depression and the Red Sea was uplifted to form the
Afar Block Mountains

88
Great East African Rift
 Extends from palestine-jordan in the north to malawi-
mozambique in the south
 A distance of about 7,200 kilometers
 5,600 kilometers is in Africa
 1,700 kilometers in Eritrea and Ethiopia
 Widest part of the Rift Valley is the Afar Triangle (200-300 km)

89
 Afar Triangle
 Also called afar depression
 Its northern part is Danakil depression…hottest place in the world
 Bordered by:
• Ethiopian plateau-west
• Red sea-North east
• Somalia plateau-South

90
 The Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden, and the East African System meet
and form the triangular depression of the Afar

 The formation of the Gulf of Aden and the separation of the Arabian
Peninsula from the Horn of Africa also took place during the
Tertiary period

91
 Rift Valley region of Ethiopian
• The most unstable part of the country
• Numerous hot springs, fumorales, active volcanoes, geysers, and
frequent earthquakes
• Formation of the rift valley has the following structural
(physiographic) effects:
• Divides the Ethiopian plateau into two
• Separates the Arabian landmass from African landmass
• Causes the formation of the dead sea, red sea and the gulf of
Aden troughs
• Creates basins and fault depressions on which the rift valley
lakes are formed
92
C. Quaternary Volcanic Eruptions and Depositions
• Recent volcanic activities that took place after the formation of the rift
valley
• Occurred in the pliocene-pleistocene epochs
• A continuation of the tectonic and volcanic processes
• Renewed rifting/faulting and more volcanism
• Occurred in the floor of the rift valley and the region south of lake
Tana
• Aden volcanic and recent faulting are more extensively developed in
the afar region
• Aden volcanic have relatively well-preserved and visible
morphological features 93
 The basic volcanic features of the Aden series include:-
• Numerous and freshly preserved volcanic cones
• Example:
• Dubi
• Aftera
• Erta Ale--the most active volcano in Ethiopia
• Volcanic hills and mountains
• Fantale, Boseti-Gouda near Adama
• Aletu north of Lake Ziway
• Chebbi north of Lake Hawassa etc
• Extensive lava fields and lava sheets.
• Lava ridges
• Thermal springs, fumaroles etc
94
Quaternary Deposition
 In quaternary period of the Cenozoic era
• Earth experienced a marked climatic change
• Time of the last ‟ice age‟ in the middle and high latitude
• Time of the “pluvial rains” in Africa

95
 Pluvial rains---relatively high precipitation
• Eroded the Ethiopian plateau
• Eroded materials were deposited in the rift valley lakes
• Resulted in an excessive surface flow; rivers were many and
large
• Carried a lot of water and sediments
• Lake and marshy areas became numerous and deep
• For example, Ziway-Langano-Shalla; Hawasa-Shallo;
Chamo-Abaya; and Lake Abe and the nearby smaller lakes
and marsh basins formed huge lakes
96
 After the “Pluvial Rains‟
• Earth's climate became warmer and drier
• Increased the rate of evaporation
• Diminished the sizes of the lakes
• Today, lacustrine deposits in many of the Ethiopian lakes, river
valleys and lowlands
 Deposits are divided as follow.
A. Lacustrine deposits: lakebeds, and swampy depressions
B. Fluvial deposits: on the banks of rivers
C. Glacio-fluvial deposits : occurred on high mountains
D. Aeolian deposits: windblown deposits
E.Coastal and marine deposits: on sea and sea-covered places
97
 Quaternary deposits are mainly found in
• Rift valley (afar and lakes region)
• Baro lowlands
• Southern borena
• Parts of northwestern low lands

 Cenozoic rocks cover 50% of the land mass of the country that
include
 Highland tertiary volcanic (basalt…hard and black volcanic
rock)
 Tertiary as well as quaternary volcanic 98
 2.5. Rock and Mineral Resources of Ethiopia

 Abundant mineral resources

 Its is associated with the Precambrian rocks
 A great variety of such minerals occur in the basement rocks
 Rocks contain most of the metallic deposits known at present
 Taking place for the past 2,000 years
 Gold production and utilization has become part of Ethiopia's
history, tradition and folklore
 However, presently mineral production from Ethiopia has been
negligible by world standards
99
2.5.1. Brief Facts and Current State of Main Minerals in Ethiopia

 Gold
• Mined for quite long time
• Mainly from benishangul-gumuz (metekel) and adola

 Platinum
• Yubdo area in Wellega, is the only active Ethiopian Platinum mine
 Tantalum
• Found in southern ethiopia
• It occurs in adola area where kenticha
• Extensive lignite deposits in Ethiopia are found in
• Nedjo (wellega)
• Small amounts in chilga (Gondar)
100
 Tantalum
• Found in southern Ethiopia
• It occurs in adola area where kenticha
• Extensive lignite deposits in Ethiopia are found in
• Nedjo (wellega)
• Small amounts in chilga (Gondar)

101
 Gemstones
• Occur in many parts of Ethiopia, mainly in
• Amhara Regional States
• Oromia Regional States
 Quality Opal was first discovered by local people in Wadla and
Dalanta woredas, North Wello in Amhara Regional State

 Potash
• Reserve in the danakil (dallol depression) of the afar region

102
 Gypsum and Anhydrite
• Produced for domestic consumption
• Occur in sedimentary formations of the
• Red sea coastal area
• Danakil depression
• Ogaden, shewa, gojjam, tigray, and hararghe

 Marble
• Found in
• West of mekelle
• South of Adwa in Tigray
103
 Clay
• Ethiopia is endowed with industrial clay material
• Alluvial clay occur in
• Adola area
• Abay gorge
• Rift Valley lakes region
• Ceramic clay found at
• Ambo
• Adola

104
 Construction stones
• Include important building stones such as
• Basalt
• Granite
• Limestone
• Sandstone
• Found in
• Muger valley
• Abay gorge (dejen)
• Tigray (messebo)
105
2.5.2. Mineral Potential Sites of Ethiopia

 Most mineral potentials of Ethiopia includes three major greenstone

belts
1. The Western and South-western-greenstone belt
 Contain various minerals: primary gold occurrences such as
• Dul,Tulu-Kape
• Oda-Godere
• Akobo
• Baruda
• Bekuji-Motish
• Kalaj
106
2. The Southern greenstone belt
 Known as the adola belt
 Comprises the primary gold deposits and occurrences of
• Lega-dembi
• Sakaro
• Wellena
• Kumudu
• Megado-Serdo
• Dawa Digati
• Moyale
• Ababa River

107
3. The Northern greenstone belt (Tigray)
• Comprises of the primary gold occurrences of
• Terakemti
• Adi-zeresenay
• Nirague

108
 UNITE THREE
THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
(3hrs)

109
3.1. INTRODUCTION

 The topography of Ethiopia is largely determined by the geologic

activities of the Cenozoic Era

 The uplifting of the Arabo-Ethiopian swell and the subsequent

outpouring, spreading and thick accumulation of Trapean lava have
given rise to an outward sloping highland plateau and mountains

 The major faulting resulted in the division of the plateau into two
broad units and the formation of a great structural valley

110
 Faulting elsewhere and on the floor guided part of the course of
some rivers

 They also formed depressions on which lakes were subsequently

created

 Geomorphic processes brought some modification to the structural

landform by river dissection and roughening on the highlands, and
deposition on the lower areas

111
General Characteristics of the Ethiopian Physiography
 Ethiopian landform is characterized by great diversity
 There are
• Flat-topped plateaus
• High and rugged mountains
• Deep river gorges
• Vast plains

112
 Altitude ranges from 125 meters below sea level (Kobar Sink) to the
highest mountain in Ethiopia, Mount Ras Dashen (4,620 m.a.s.l),
which is the fourth highest mountain in Africa

 Ethiopia has the largest proportion of elevated landmass in the

African continent

 It is sometimes described as the Roof of East Africa because of its

height and large area

113
 More than 50% of the Ethiopian landmass is above 1,000 meters
of elevation; and above 1,500 meters makes 44% of the country

 Half of this, in turn, is at more than 2,000 meters above sea level

 Most of the Ethiopian Highlands are part of central and northern

Ethiopia, and its northernmost portion extends into Eritrea

 The highland core, on the other hand, is encircled by semi-arid and

lowlands

 The Ethiopian Highlands are rugged mass of mountains, situated in

the Horn of Africa
114
 They are the most significant physical features of the country, which
form the largest continuous area of its elevation in the continent

 They have been dissected by several rivers and ravines which have
cut deep gorges

 They have been divided into several regions and mountain systems

 Most of the country consists of high plateau and mountain ranges

that are sources of many rivers and streams that made the country to
be described as the “Water Tower of East Africa”

115
 The diversity in topography is accompanied by differences in other
natural features such as soil, climate, vegetation and wild life

 Likewise, the socio-cultural and economic phenomena are also

affected by the topography

 Taking the 1,000 meters contour line for the highland-lowland

demarcation, one observes the following contrasting features
between the Ethiopian highlands and lowlands

116
Characteristics of Ethiopian highlands
 Moderate and high amount of rainfall (>600 mm per year)
 Lower mean annual temperature (<200C)
 The climate is favorable for biotic life
 Rain-fed agriculture is possible
 Free from tropical diseases
 Attractive for human habitation and densely settled

117
 The cumulative effect of all this is that, the highlands have been
significant throughout Ethiopian history in the economic, cultural
and political life of the people

 These highlands make up nearly 56% of the area of the Ethiopia

 This is further subdivided into

• Lower highland (1,000 - 2,000 m.a.s.l), which make up 35%
• Higher highland (>2,000 m.a.s.l) constituting nearly 22%

118
 In contrast to the highlands, the remaining 44% of the Ethiopian
lowlands are characterized by:
• Fewer amounts of rainfall and higher temperature
• High prevalence of tropical diseases
• Lower population densities
• Nomadic and semi-nomadic economic life
• Vast plain lands favorable for irrigation agriculture along
the lower river basins

119
3.2. The Physiographic Divisions of Ethiopia

 Structural divisions by the geologic processes of the Cenozoic Era

 Three major physiographic

1. The Western highlands and lowlands

2. The South-eastern (Eastern) highlands and lowlands

3. The Rift Valley

120
3.2.1. Western Highlands and Lowlands

 All the area west of the Rift Valley

 Nearly the whole western half of Ethiopia

 Makeup 44% of the area of the country

 Subdivided into
• Four groups of highlands (76.3%)
• Four groups of lowlands (23.7%)

121
1. The Western Highlands
A. Tigray Plateau
 Extends tekeze gorge (S) to central Eritrean HLs
 Separated from the Eritrean plateau by the mereb river
 Lies to the
• Southeast of mereb/gash river
• Northeast of tekeze river gorge

122
 Constitutes 13% of the area of the region
 Highlands b/n 1,000-2,000 m.a.s.l
 Features of:
• Granite hills
• Rugged topography
• Ambas: steep-sided, flat-topped mountain surrounded by
farmland

123
 High mountains over 3000 meters:
• Mount Tsibet (3988 m.a.s.l)
• Mount Ambalage (3291 m.a.s.l)
• Mount Assimba (3248 m.a.s.l)
• Debre-Damo:
• Famous monastery
• Tableland climbed only by a rope pulley

124
Figure 3.1. Ethiopian Topography

125
B. North Central Massifs
 Largest in the western HLs
 Follows the Abay and Tekeze gorges
 Plateau and tablelands are still capped by the Trappean lava
 Its central part accommodates:
• Lake Tana basin
• Plains of Fogera and Dembia

126
• Consists of the Gonder, Wello and Gojjam Massifs
• Most popular mountains:
• Ras Dashen (4,620 m.a.s.l)
• Weynobar/Ancua (4462 m.a.s.l)
• KidisYared (4453 m.a.s.l)
• Bwahit (4437 m.a.s.l) in Simen Mountain System
• Guna (4,231 m.a.s.l) in the Debre Tabour Mountain System
• Abune Yoseph (4,260 m.a.s.l) in the Lasta highlands of Wello
• Birhan (4,154 m.a.s.l) in the Choke Mountain System in Gojjam

127
 These mountains have:
• Steep cliffs
• Rugged terrain

 Gonder and Gojjam are

• Separated from wello by impenetrable and deep gorges
• Connected by yeju-wadla delanta land bridge
• Woreta-debre tabor-woldya road constructed to link the
northwestern region with asseb through woldya and dessie

128
C. Shewa Plateau/Central highlands
 Bounded by:
• Rift Valley in the east and southeast
• Abay gorge in its northern and western
• Omo gorge in the south and west
 Occupies a central geographical position in Ethiopia
 Smallest of the Western HLs
 Only 11% of the area of the whole physiographic region
 Drained by Abay, Omo and Awash
 Highest mountain:
• Abuye-Meda (4,000 m.a.s.l) in Northern Shewa
• Guraghe (3,721 m.a.s.l ) in the south 129
D. Southwestern Highlands
 Consists of the highlands of:
• Wellega
• Illuababora
• Jimma
• Kaff
• Gamo and Gofa
 Separated from the adjacent highlands by:
• Abay river valley
• Omo river valley
 Extends from the Abay gorge in the N
To
Kenya border and Chew Bahir in the S
 Accounts for 22.7% of the area of the region
 Second largest in the Western HLs
 About 70% of its area is lies within 1,000-2,000 m altitude
130
 The wettest in Ethiopia

 Drained by:
• Dabus, Deddessa, rivers
• Baro, Akobo rivers
• Ghibe/Omo rivers

 Accommodates the most numerous and diverse ethnic linguistic

groups in Ethiopia

 Highest peak:
• Guge Mountain (4,200 m.a.s.l)

131
2. Western Lowlands
 Western foothills and border plains
 Extend from Western Tigray in the N to southern Gamo-Gofa in
the S
 Make 11% of the area of the physiographic region
 Ranges between 500 and 1000 m.a.s.l
 Subdivided into Four:
• Tekeze lowland
• Abay-Dinder lowland
• Baro lowland
• Ghibe lowland
• Except baro lowland, it characterized by arid or semi-arid
conditions 132
 Economic activities:
• Pastoral or semi-pastoral-dominate
• Irrigation agriculture is highly feasible
• Mechanized agriculture

 Small but important towns:

• Humera
• Metema
• Omedla
• Kurmuk
• Gambella
133
 Ghibe/Omo lowland
• Includes:
• Lower ghibe/omo valley
• Northern section of the turkana basin
• Geographical, it is classified in the western lowlands
• But Structurally, it also belongs to the rift valley
• Faulted and tectonically depressed area

134
3.2.2. Southeastern Highlands and Lowlands
 Second largest physiographic region in terms of area
 Accounts for 37% of the area of Ethiopia:
• Highlands (46%)
• Lowland (54%)
 Subdivided:
• Two units of highlands
• Two units of extensive lowlands

135
1. Southeastern Highlands

A. Arsi-Bale-Sidama Highlands
 Found to the east of the Lakes Region
 Located in the south western section
 Make up:
• 28.5% of the area of the region
• 62% of the south - Eastern HLs
 Made up of:
• Flat rolling uplands
• Dissected mountains
136
 Well-known mountains:
• Kaka (4,180 m.a.s.l)
• Bada (4,139 m.a.s.l)

• Chilalo (4,036 m.a.s.l)

 Dissected by rivers Wabishebelle and Ghenale along with their
tributaries

137
Sof Omar cave
• Found near Bale Mountains
• World's most spectacular and extensive underground
• Cut by Web River, tributary of Ghenale through the Mesozoic
Limestone rocks

138
Bale highlands
 Separated from the Arsi highlands by the head and main stream of
Wabishebelle
 Consist of:
• Basaltic plateau in the north-central part
• High mountain massif to the south
 Highest mountain peaks:
• Tulu-Demtu (4,377 m.a.s.l)
• Batu (4,307 m.a.s.l)
 Modified by Erosion features belonging to Pleistocene glaciation
 Important grains producing areas with still high potential 139
Arsi highlands
 Afro-Alpine summit of Senetti plateau is found on the Arsi
highlands
 Modified by fluvial processes:
• Gorges
• Hanging valleys
• Depressions
 Important grains producing areas with still high potential

140
Sidama Highlands
 Separated from the Bale Highlands by the Ghenale river valley
 Occupy the southwestern corner of this region
 Prominent feature: Jemjem plateau
 Important coffee growing area

141
B. Hararghe Plateau
 A north-easterly extension of the south-eastern HLs
 Extends from: Chercher highlands in SW

to
Jigjiga in East
 Makes up:
• 38% of the SE highlands
• 17.4% of the whole physiographic region
 A low lying and elongated region
 Highest mountain: Gara-Muleta (3,381 m.a.s.l) 142
2. Southeastern Lowlands
 Located in the southeastern part of the country
 The most extensive lowlands in Ethiopia
 Make up:
• 54% of the area of the physiographic region
• 1/5 th of the country
 Sub-divided:
• Wabishebelle plain (60%)
• Ghenale Plain (40%)

143
• Include the plains of:
• Ogaden
• Elkere
• Borena
• Interrupted by:
• Low hills
• Low ridges
• Inselbergs: small mountain
• Shallow river valleys
• Broad river valleys
• Depressions 144
 Due to harsh climatic conditions:
• Little used
• Support very small population
• Sparsely inhabited
• Pastoral and semi-pastoral communities
 The economic potential:
• Animal husbandry
• Irrigation
• Agriculture
• Exploitation of petroleum and natural gas

145
3.2.3. Rift Valley
 A tectonically formed structural depression
 Bounded by two major and more or less parallel escarpments
 Separated the Ethiopian Highlands and Lowlands in to two
• Extends from: Afar triangle in N
to
Chew Bahir in S
 About 1,700 km2
 Covers 18% of the area of Ethiopia
 Elongated and funnel shaped, with a NE-SW orientation
 Opens out:
• Afar Triangle, the widest
• Narrows down to the south
146
 Its climate varies from warm, hot and dry to cool and moderately
moist conditions due to:
• Altitudinal variation
• Positional differences

 Desolate and sparsely inhabited by pastoralists and some

people practice some rain-fed agriculture
 Subdivided into three:
• Afar triangle
• Main Ethiopian rift
• Chew bahir rift 147
Floor of Rift Valley
 Made up of interconnected:
• Troughs: elongated& low pressure region

• Grabens: valley with distinct escarpment

• Depressions: sunken landform
 Covered by:
• Volcanic rocks
• fluvial deposits
• lacustrine deposits
 Altitude ranges from:
• 125 m.b.s.l at Dallol Depression
• 2,000 m.a.s.l in the Lakes region

148
A. Afar Triangle
 The largest and widest part of the rift valley
 Makes up 54% of the rift valley area
 Bounded by:
• High western escarpments in W
• Eastern escarpments in the E
• Afar and Aisha Horst in the NE
 Generally of low altitude (300-700 m)
 Quite different is the morphology of the Afar depression,
triangular-shape lowland
 Elevation drops uniformly from SW to N
 In E, the shores of Lake Asal, fluctuating 125 m.b.s.l, represent
the lowest sub aerial point of the African continent
149
 Characterized by:
• Faulted depressions (grabens)
• Volcanic hills
• Active volcanoes
• Volcanic ridges
• Lava fields
• Low lava platforms
• Lakes (abe, asale, and afrera)
 Generally hot and dry
 Economic importance:
• Salt extraction
• Irrigation along the Awash River
• Electric potential from geothermal energy
• A prominent feature: Danakil Depression (Kobar Sink)
150
 Danakil Depression (Kobar Sink)
• The most hostile environments on Earth
• Max. temp. can exceed 50°C during the summer wet season
• Located in Dallol, at the northern tip of Afar
• Separated from the red Sea by a 200 meters high land barrier
much of it lies below sea level
• Its larger part covered by thick and extensive salt plain
• Lake Asale and Afrera occupy the lowest parts of this sunken
depression

151
B. Main Ethiopian Rift/Central Rift
• Narrow belt of the RV that extends from: Awash River in the N
to
Lake Chamo in the S
• Bounded by the western and eastern escarpments
• Except of the Arbaminch area, escarpments are generally low
• The narrowest and the highest
• Average width of 50-80 kilometers
• General elevation of 1,000-2,000 m.a.s.l
• The floor is dotted by:
• Cinder cones
• Volcanic mountains
• The big ones:
• Mount Fentale
• Boseti-guda (near Adama)
• Aletu (north of Lake Ziway)
• Chebi (north of Lake Hawasa) 152
 Prominent features are numerous lakes formed on tectonic sags and
fault depressions

 Lakes are generally milder and watery

 Here rain-fed agriculture is practiced

 Other resource bases include:

• Recreational value of the lakes
• Agricultural importance of some streams and lakes
• Geothermal energy potential

153
III. Chew Bahir Rift
 The smallest and the southern-most part of the rift valley
 Separated from main Ethiopian rift by Gneissic(metamorphic type
of rock) highlands of Konso
 Characterized by:
• Broad and shallow depression
• Marshy area covered by tall grass
• Segen and woito streams empty

154
 3.3. The Impacts of Relief on Biophysical and Socioeconomic
Conditions

 Highly dissected character influence the various socioeconomic

aspects of Ethiopia
1. Agricultural practices
 Relief influences: farm size and shape
Small in size and fragmented
• Choice of farming techniques and farm implements
• Crop production:
• Higher altitudes crops (barley, wheat…..)
• Low altitude crops (sorghum, maize…..)
• Practice of animal husbandry:
• Higher altitudes (equines and sheep..)
• Lower altitudes (camels and goat…)
155
2. Settlement pattern
 Rugged and difficult terrain hinders the development of
settlement and its expansion
 Highlands of Ethiopia
• Temperate type of climatic condition
• Mainly free from most of the tropical diseases
• Densely settled
• Sedentary life
• Permanent settlements
 Lowlands of Ethiopia
• Inhabited by pastoralists
• Sparsely settled
• Temporary settlements

156
3. Transportation and communication
 Highly dissected nature

• Barrier to the development of internal surface transportation

• Resulted in the long-term isolation of many communities
• Makes infrastructure development and maintenance costly
• Highly influence TV and radio communications
• Rendered rivers less navigable due:
• Waterfalls
• Deep gorges

• Steep cliffs
157
4. Hydroelectric power potential
 Difference in altitude and high rainfall created very high potential
for the production of hydroelectric power in Ethiopia

158
5. Socio-cultural feeling
 Rugged terrain
• Result of excessive surface dissection
• Long-term isolation of communities
• Led to the occurrence of cultural diversity
• People who live in the highlands: degegnas (Mountaineers)
• People who live in the lowlands: kollegnas (Lowlanders)

159
6. Impacts on climate
 Climate of Ethiopia is a result of:
• Tropical position
• Great altitudinal variation
 Highlands moisture surplus
 Lowlands moisture deficit

160
7. Impacts on soil
 Steep mountain slopes provide:
• Low angle of rest
• Unstable surface materials
• Subject to degradation processes
• Shallow and little developed soils

8. Impacts on natural vegetation

 Relief climate and hydrology type of natural vegetation
grown

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 CHAPTER FOUR
DRAINAGE SYSTEMS AND WATER RESOURCE OF
ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
(4hrs)

162
4.1. INTRODUCTION
Water bodies
 Covered 71% of the earth's total surface

 Majorly (97.5%) occupied by seas and oceans…alkaline

 2.5% is fresh water:

• Mainly(68.7% ) deposited in glaciers
• Unevenly distributed due to:
• Latitudinal locations
• Climatic conditions
• Topographic setups
 Surface waters: water in:
• Lakes
• Rivers
• Atmosphere
• Soils
• Wetlands 163
In Ethiopia
• Larger volume of ground and surface water due to:
• Diverse topographical setup
• Relatively higher rainfall
• Nearness to equator
• 0.7 % of the total land mass is covered by water bodies
• 124.4 BCM surface water potential
• Consequently, Ethiopia calls the “Water Tower” of eastern
Africa

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4.2. Major Drainage System of Ethiopia
Drainage
 Well-defined channel that water flows
 Made up of: a principal river

its tributaries
 A river system begins: source (headwater)
 A river system ends: mouth

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Drainage system
 Branched network of stream channels together with the adjacent
land slopes they drain
 It is the outcome of:
• Geological processes
• Nature and structure of rock
• Topography
• Slope
• Amount and the periodicity of the flow

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Drainage basin
 Topographic region from which a river and its tributaries collect
 Both the surface runoff and subsurface flow
 Separated from and bounded by water/topographic divide
 Determined by:
• Topography
• Structural formation of the rift valley
• Faults and joints

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Major Drainage Systems
 Three broadly classification:
 Western
 Southeastern
 Rift Valley
 Western and the Southeastern drainage systems are separated by
the Rift Valley system

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4.2.1. Western Drainage Systems
 Largest of all drainage systems: Draining 40 % of the total area

Carry 60 % of the annual water flow

 Comprises four major river basins:

• Tekeze

• Abay flow westward joining the Nile finally ends Mediterranean Sea

• Baro-Akobo

• Ghibe (Omo)-flow southward

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Abay river basin

 Largest river in: volumetric discharge

coverage western drainage systems

 Covers an area of 199,812 km2

 Covering parts of: Amhara

Oromia

Benishangul-Gumuz

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 Carries 65% of the annual water flow of the region

 Rises from Lake Tana (origin from sekela, choke mountain)..Blue

Nile

 Joins the white Nile from lake Victoria, Tanzania in Khartoum

(Sudan) to form the great Nile River

 Ghilgel (Little) Abay-largest stream

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Tekeze river basin

 Carries 12 % of the annual water flow of the region

 Drains 82,350 Km2

 Erosion in the basin resulted in: Large tablelands

Plateau blocks

Isolated mountain groups

 Main tributaries: Angereb

Goang rises in central highlands of Ethiopia

 Termed Atbara in Sudan

 Mean annual flow is estimated to be 8.2 BMC 172

Baro-Akobo rivers basin

 Drain the wettest highlands in the south and southwestern Ethiopia

 Carries 17% of the annual water flow

 Flows across an extensive marshy land

 Drain 75,912 km2

 Covering parts of: Benishangul-Gumuz
Gambella
Oromia
SNNPR

 Mean annual flow of 23.6 BMC

 Termed Sobat River in South Sudan 173

Ghibe/ Omo river basin

 Drain the wettest highlands in the south and southwestern Ethiopia

 Carries 6 % of the annual water flow

 Drains an area of 79,000 km2

 Mean annual flow of 16.6 BMC

 Finally empties in to the Chew-Bahir at the mouth of Lake Turkana

 Termed as inland drainage

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4.2.2. Southeastern Drainage Systems

 Southeastern physiographic region part of Ethiopia

 Mainly drained by: Wabishebelle slopes

Ghenale slopes
 Include plateaus of: Arsi
Bale
Sidama
Harerghe
 Wabshebelle and Ghenale rivers
• Cross the border into somalia
• Carrying 25 % of the annual water flow of Ethiopia

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Ghenale River basin

 Area of 171,042 km2

 Covering parts of: oromia

SNNPR

somali

 Has fewer tributaries but carries more water than Wabishebelle

 Reaches the Indian Ocean

 Flows estimated to be 5.8 BMC

 In Somalia, it is named the Juba River

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Wabishebelle river basin

 A total catchment area of 202,697 km2

 The largest river in terms catchment area

 Drains parts of: Oromia

Harari
Somali

 The longest river in Ethiopia

 Tributaries are mainly left bank and intermittent

 Despite its size, it fails to reach the Indian ocean

 Water disappears in the sands, just near the Juba River

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Figure 4.1. Drainage Basins of Ethiopia

178
4.2.3. Rift Valley Drainage System

 Area of: small amount of rainfall

high evaporation

small catchment area

 Its size is restricted by the outward sloping highlands

 No one general flow direction, as the streams flow in all directions

 The only major river basin is the Awash

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Awash river basin
 Catchment area of 114,123 km2
 Average annual discharge of 4.9 BCM
 Originates from Shewan plateau in central highlands of Ethiopia
 Covers parts of: Amhara
Oromia
Afar
Somali
Dire Dawa
Addis Ababa City
 The most utilized river in the country
 Flows in a northeast direction
 Finally ends in a maze of small lakes and marshy area
 The largest lake is Lake Abe on the Ethio-Djibouti border
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Afar drainage sub-basin

 Practically no stream flow

 Area of: little rain

very high temperature

very high evaporation

 Lake Afrera and Asale

• Only main surface waters in the basin
• Their formation is related to tectonic activities

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Rift Valley sub-basin

 Characterized by: A number of lakes

Small streams

 Also described as lakes region

 The lakes occupy fault depression

 There are small streams for:

Meki and Katar rivers flow into Ziway

Bilate into Abaya

Segen into Chew Bahir

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 4.3. Water Resources: Rivers, Lakes and Sub-Surface
Water

4.3.1. The Ethiopian Rivers

 Unlike many other African countries, Ethiopia is endowed with

many rivers

 Majority of the rivers originate from highland areas and cross the
Ethiopian boundary

 Altogether, Ethiopian rivers form 12 major watersheds separating

the Mediterranean Sea from the Indian Ocean drainage systems

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184
General Characteristics of Ethiopian Rivers
Due to:
• Highland nature of landmass
• Surface ruggedness Et’n rivers have the following characterized as:
• Inclination of the highlands
• Climatic conditions
• Originate from the highlands
• Trans-boundary
• Extreme seasonal fluctuation
• wet season, runoff is higher and rivers are full bursting
• dry seasons they became mere trickles of water or even dry up
• Rapids and waterfalls along their course
• Flow on steep slopes having steep profiles

185
4.3.2. Ethiopian Lakes

 Relatively Ethiopia is rich in lakes

 Lakes are result of tectonic process that took place during

Quaternary period of Cenozoic era

 Majority of lakes are located within the rift valley system

 Mainly formed on faulted depressions

186
Lake Tana

• Largest lake in Ethiopia occupies a shallow depression in the

highlands

• Formed slower sinking and reservoir by lava flow b/n Gojjam and
Gonder massifs

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Crater lakes

 Lakes formed due to volcanic eruption

 Ethiopia is also gifted with crater lakes

 Include the lakes at and around: Bishoftu, Wonchi (near Ambo)

Hayk (near Dessie)

Top of Mount Zikwala

 Lake Ashenge (Tigray) is formed on a tectonic basin

188
 Man-made lakes such as: Koka

Fincha

Melka Wakena

 Cluster of lakes are lined up within main Ethiopian rift

• Abaya: largest of all the lakes in the system
• Chew Bahir : drained by Segan and Woito

southern tip of the rift valley forms

• Shala: deepest the lakes in the central Ethiopian rift
• Ziway: shallowest the lakes in the central Ethiopian rift

189
Figure 4.2. Lakes of Ethiopia

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Table 4.2: Area and depth of some of Ethiopian Lakes

191
4.3.3. Subsurface (Ground) Water Resource of Ethiopia

 Lower ground water potential

 Determine: Climatic conditions

Geophysical conditions

 Estimated to be 2.6 - 6.5 BMC

192
4.4. Water Resources Potentials and Development in Ethiopia

 Underutilized due to so many factors

 Potential development uses of water resource of Ethiopia

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1.Hydro-electric Potential
 Very high potential for generating electricity
 Estimated at about 45000 MW
 The first HEP: Akaki River (Aba Samuel) in 1932
 Currently, many others are under construction
 Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) is the country's
largest dam under construction aiming to generate 6400 MW
 Gilgel Gibe III hydropower project has gone operational
generating 1870 MW

194
 Currently Ethiopia is administering 14 hydroelectric power plants
constructed on different lakes

 Major problem to the use of Ethiopian rivers for HEP:

• The seasonal flow fluctuations
• Impact of climate change and variability's
• Severe erosion from the highlands
• Sedimentation in the reservoirs

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2. Irrigation and Transportation

 Rugged terrain limits the uses of rivers both for irrigation and
transportation

 In the highlands: steep slopes

rapids
waterfalls are important obstacles
narrow valleys
deep valleys
gorges

 But on the lowlands, their demand for irrigation is high

 potential of irrigation is estimated to be 5.3 million hectares

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 Baro-Akobo and Genale Dawa: large irrigation potential

 More than 60% of the area under irrigation is located in rift valley
drainage system

 Majority of Ethiopian rivers are not suitable for transportation

 The Baro at its lower course is the only navigable river

 Ethiopian lakes are much suitable for transportation than rivers

 Lake Tana and Abaya: most used for transportation

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3. Fishing and Recreation
 Lakes are rich in fish
 Estimated to be 31.5 thousand tons
 Exploitable fish potential in lakes varies
 Currently lake tana leads the potential by estimated 8,000-10,000
tons per year
 Fish production from lake chamo is estimated at 4,500 tons per
year
 More than 60% of fish supplies are coming from Ethiopian main
rift valley lakes
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 However, some of the lakes are currently threatened by
• Sedimentation
• Invasive species (water hyacinth)
• Over exploitation
• Expansion of investments around lakes

 A variety of fish, birds and other aquatic life forms in the lakes
 scenic beauty of the lakes
 hot springs
 spectacular river gorges important recreational and tourist attractions
 impressive waterfalls
 variety of wild life

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