Implementing Maintenance Procedures

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Mary Help College Implementing Maintenance
Procedures

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 Implementing Maintenance Procedures

Unit of Competency: Implementing Maintenance Procedures

LO1:Determine best practices for equipment and software maintenance

LO2: Revise practices’ where appropriate
LO3: Identify and analyze IT system components to be maintained
LO4: Apply maintenance procedures

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 Basics Computer Maintenance

 Definition of maintenance

Maintenance is an activity that ensures the fullest availability of equipment, utilities

and related buildings for the purposes they were designed at optimal cost and under
satisfactory conditions of quality, safety and protection of the environment
Maintenance is part of the full life-cycle of equipment or building or machine etc, from
purchase to final disposal.

 Types of Maintenance strategies

1. Preventive maintenance
2. Breakdown Maintenance
3. Corrective Maintenance

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1. Preventive maintenance

 Preventive maintenance is a strategy primarily based on essential care, condition

monitoring and fixed time maintenance to keep buildings and equipment in satisfactory
operating condition.
 Preventive maintenance utilizes systematic scheduled repairs and inspection, detection
and correction of faults either before they occur or before they develop in to major
defects and result in costly repairs.
 It is scheduled and planed
. 2. Corrective Maintenance

 This planned but unscheduled maintenance is defined as the work performed to adjust
loose equipment, prevent a major failure and return the equipment to as new
operational condition. The Actions requiring corrective maintenance are generally
found during preventive maintenance activities
3. Breakdown Maintenance
 Breakdown maintenance, sometimes known as emergency maintenance, is defined as
maintenance resulting from the occasional and unavoidable unavailability of equipment
due to unforeseen circumstances requiring unplanned repairs.
 It is unplanned and unscheduled
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Self check
1. What is Maintenance?
2. What is Preventive maintenance
3. What is Corrective Maintenance
4. What is Breakdown Maintenance
5. Different Between Preventive maintenance and Corrective
Maintenance
6. Different Between Preventive maintenance and Breakdown
Maintenance
7. From Three strategy Which one the best strategy. Why?????

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 Purpose of Preventive Maintenance

 Preventive maintenance is used to reduce the probability of hardware or software
problems by systematically and periodically checking hardware and software to ensure
proper operation.
 Check the condition of cables, components, and peripherals. Clean components
to reduce the likelihood of overheating. Repair or replace components that show
signs of abuse or excess wear
.
 Use the following tasks as a guide to create a hardware maintenance program:
 Remove dust from fan intakes.
 Remove dust from the power supply.
 Remove dust from components inside the computer.
 Clean the mouse and keyboard.
 Check and secure loose cables.

CAUTION: Before cleaning any device, turn it off and unplug

the device from the power source
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 Some benefits of preventive maintenance include the following:

 Increases data protection

 Extends the life of the components
 Increases equipment stability
 Reduces repair costs
 Reduces the number of equipment failures

 Verify that installed software is current. Follow the

policies of the organization when installing security
updates, operating system updates, and program
updates. Many organizations do not allow updates until
extensive testing has been completed. This testing is
done to confirm that the update will not cause problems
with the operating system and software.

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 Use the tasks listed as a guide to create a software maintenance schedule that fits the needs
of your computer equipment:
 Review security updates
 Review software updates
 Review driver updates
 Update virus definition files
 Scan for viruses and spyware
 Remove unwanted programs
 Scan hard drives for errors
 Defragment hard drives
 As a computer user or a technician, you should be aware of all possible dangers. A safe
workspace is clean, organized, and well lit.
 Safe Lab Procedures and Tool Use
 Safety in the lab and in the workplace is an important issue when working on computers
and other electrical devices.

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 General Safety Guidelines

 Follow the basic safety guidelines to prevent cuts, burns, electrical shock, and damage to
eyesight.
 As a best practice, make sure that a fire extinguisher and first aid kit are available in case of
fire or injury. Here are some general safety guidelines:

 Remove your watch or any other jewelry and secure loose clothing.
 Turn off the power and unplug equipment before opening the case and performing
 service.
 Cover any sharp edges inside the computer case with tape.
 Never open a power supply or a monitor.
 Do not touch areas in printers that are hot or use high voltage.
 Know where the fire extinguisher is located and how to use it.
 Know where the first aid kit is located.
 Keep food and drinks out of your workspace.
 Keep your workspace clean and free of clutter.
 Lift heavy objects with your legs to avoid back injury.

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 Fire Safety Guidelines

 Follow fire safety guidelines to protect equipment and lives. Turn off and unplug the
computer, before beginning a repair to avoid damage to the computer or a shock to the
technician.
 If there is a fire, you should follow these safety procedures:
Never fight a fire that is out of control or not contained.
Always have a planned fire escape route before beginning any work.
Get out of the building quickly.
Contact emergency services for help.

Caution
Power supplies and monitors contain very high voltage. Do not wear the antistatic wrist strap when replacing
power supplies or monitors. Also, some printer parts might become very hot when in use, and other parts
can contain very high voltages. Make sure that the printer has had time to cool before making the repair.
Check the printer manual for locations of various components that can contain high voltages. Some
components might retain high voltages even after the printer is turned off.

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 Identify Safety Procedures to Protect Equipment from Damage and Data from Loss

 Static electricity is the buildup of an electric charge resting on a surface. This buildup and
sudden release of energy, called electrostatic discharge (ESD), can be destructive to the
electronics in a computer system.
 ESD, harsh climates, and poor-quality sources of electricity can cause damage to
computer equipment. Follow the proper handling guidelines, be aware of environmental
issues, and use equipment that stabilizes power to prevent equipment damage and data
loss.
 ESD Protection Recommendations
 ESD can cause permanent damage to electrical components. Follow these
recommendations to help prevent ESD damage:
 Keep all components in antistatic bags until you are ready to install them.
 Use grounded mats on workbenches and on the work area floor.
 Use antistatic wrist straps when working on computers.
 Avoid working on carpeted areas if possible.

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 Climate also affects risks when working with computer equipment. Consider the
following recommendations:
 If the environment temperature is too high, equipment can overheat.
 If the humidity level is too low, the chance of ESD increases.
 If the humidity level is too high, equipment can suffer from moisture damage.

 Power Fluctuation Types

 The following types of AC power fluctuations can cause data loss or hardware failure:

 Blackout: Loss of AC power. A blown fuse, damaged transformer, or downed power line can
cause a blackout.
 Brownout: Reduced voltage level of AC power that lasts for a period of time. Brownouts
occur when the power line voltage drops below 80 percent of the normal voltage level.
Overloading electrical circuits can cause a brownout.
 Noise: Interference from generators and lightning. Noise results in unclean power, which can
cause errors in a computer system.
 Spike: Sudden increase in voltage that lasts for a very short period and exceeds 100 percent
of the normal voltage on a line. Spikes can be caused by lightning strikes, but can also occur
when the electrical system comes back on after a blackout.
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 Power surge: Dramatic increase in voltage above the normal flow of electrical current. A
power surge lasts for a few nanoseconds, or a few billionths of a second.
 Sag: Decreasing of power from the wall outlet

 Power Protection Devices

 To help shield against power issues, use power protection devices to protect the data and
computer equipment:

 Surge suppressor: Helps protect against damage from surges and spikes. A surge suppressor
diverts extra electrical voltage on the line to the ground.

 Online Uninterruptible power supply (OUPS): Helps protect against potential electrical power
problems by supplying electrical power to a computer or other device. The battery is
constantly recharging while the UPS is connected to a power source. The UPS is able to supply
a consistent quality of power when brownouts and blackouts occur. Many UPS devices are
able to communicate directly with the operating system on a computer. This allows the UPS
to safely shut down the computer and save data prior to the UPS losing all electrical power.

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 Standby uninterruptible power supply (USPS): Helps protect against potential electrical
power problems by providing a backup battery to supply power when the incoming voltage
drops below the normal level. The battery is on standby during normal operation. When the
voltage decreases, the battery provides DC power to a power inverter, which converts it to
AC power for the computer. The problem with this device is the time it takes to switch over

 Identify Tools and Software Used with Personal Computer Components and Know Their
Purpose
 For every tool there is the right job, and for every
job there is the right tool. Ensure that you are
familiar with the correct use of each tool and that
the right tool is used for the current task.

 Skilled use of tools and software makes the job less

difficult and ensures that tasks are performed
properly and safely
 In addition to hardware tools, software tools are also
available that help diagnose problems and determine
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 Identify Hardware Tools and Their Purpose

 A tool kit should contain all the tools necessary to complete hardware repairs. Using
the wrong tool for a job might lead to bodily injuries or result in equipment damage.
As you gain experience, you will learn which tools to have available for different types
of jobs. Hardware tools are grouped into the following four categories:
 ESD tools
 Hand tools
 Cleaning tools
 Diagnostic tools
 ESD Tools
 There are two common ESD tools:
 Antistatic wrist strap: Protects computer equipment
from ESD damage when grounded to a computer
chassis.
 Antistatic mat: Used to stand on or to place hardware on to prevent static
electricity from building up, thereby protecting the equipment from ESD
damage.
 Hand Tools
 Most tools used in the computer assembly process are small hand tools. They
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 The list that follows describes the small hand tools that you will most commonly
use:

 Flat head screwdriver: Used to loosen or tighten slotted screws.

 Phillips head screwdriver: Used to tighten or loosen cross-head screws.

 Torx screwdriver: Used to tighten or loosen screws that have a star-like

depression on the top, a feature that is mainly found on laptops.

 4. Hex driver: Sometimes called a nut driver, this tool is used to tighten nuts in the
same way that a screwdriver tightens screws.

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 Needle-nose pliers: Used to hold small parts.

 Wire cutters: Used to strip and cut wires.

 Tweezers: Used to manipulate small parts.

 Part retriever: Used to retrieve parts from locations that are too small for your hand
to fit in.

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 Flashlight: Used to illuminate areas that you cannot see well.

 Cleaning Tools
 The appropriate cleaning tools are essential when maintaining or repairing
computers. these tools will ensure that computer components are cleaned correctly.

 The list that follows describes the cleaning tools that you will most commonly use:
 Soft sloth: Used to clean different computer components without scratching or
leaving debris.

 Compressed air: Used to blow away dust and debris from

different computer parts without touching the components

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 Cable ties: Used to bundle cables neatly inside and outside of a computer.

 Parts organizer: Used to hold screws, jumpers, fasteners, and other small
parts to prevent them from getting mixed together.

 Diagnostic Tools
 To test hardware, you will use the following diagnostic tools:
 Digital multimeter: Used to test the integrity of
circuits and the quality of electricity in computer
components
 Loopback adapter: Used to test the basic
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 Identify Software Tools and Their Purpose

 A technician must be able to use a range of software tools to help diagnose problems,
maintain hardware, and protect the data stored on a computer.
 The sections that follow describe the various disk management tools and protection
software tools that you will encounter.
 Disk Management Tools
 Disk management tools help detect and correct disk errors, prepare a disk for data
storage, and remove unwanted files.

 Disk management software includes the following:

 F disk: A command-line tool used to create and delete partitions on a hard drive and set
active, or boot, partitions

 Format: Used to prepare a hard drive to store information

 Scandisk or Chkdsk: Used to check the integrity of files and folders on a hard drive by
scanning the disk surface for physical errors

 Defrag: Used to optimize space on a hard drive to allow faster access to programs and Data
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 Disk Cleanup: Used to clear space on a hard drive by searching for files that can be
safely deleted
 Disk Management: Used to manage hard drives and partitions, initialize disks, create
partitions, and format partitions
 Protection Software Tools
 Each year, viruses, spyware, and other types of malicious attacks infect millions of
computers. these malicious attacks can damage an operating system, application, and
data. Computers that have been infected can experience hardware performance
problems or component failure.
 To protect data and the integrity of the operating system and hardware, you should use
software designed to guard against attacks and to clean out malicious programs.
 Here is a list of various types of software used to protect hardware and data. Examples
of protection software tools include the following:
 Windows XP Security Center: Allows you to check the status of essential security settings on
the computer. The Security Center continuously checks to make sure that the software
firewall and antivirus programs are running. It also ensures that automatic updates are set to
download and install automatically.
 Antivirus software: Protects a computer against virus attacks that can infect other
computers.
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 Spyware remover: Protects against software that sends information about web surfing
habits to an attacker. Spyware can be installed without the knowledge or consent of the user.
 Firewall: A program that runs continuously to protect against unauthorized communications
to and from your computer.

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Self Check
1. Which of the following can cause permanent damage to electrical components if
you do not use proper tools and safety procedures?
A. ESD
B. UPS
C. MSDS
D. OSHA
2. Which recommendation should be followed first when a fire in the workplace is out
of control?
A. Try to use the elevators to get to the lowest floor faster.
B. Get
B. Get outout of the
of the room
room or building
or building andand contact
contact emergency
emergency services
services for for help.
help.
C. Use the company water system to stop the fire from extending to other areas.
D. Try to control the fire with proper extinguishers.

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3. Which of the following tools are recommended for cleaning a PC? (Choose two.)
A. Antibacterial spray
B. Compressed air
C. Mild abrasive detergent
D. Nylon brush
E. Rubbing alcohol
F. Soft cloth
4. Which device is designed specifically to protect computers and electrical devices
from excess electrical voltage?
A. Power strip
B. Standby power supply
C. Surge
C. Surge protector
protector
D. Uninterruptible power supply

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5. Which of the following effects can be observed on computer components as a

result of climate? (Choose three.)
A. Components overheat if it is too hot.
B. Moisture
B. Moisture damages
damagescomputer
computerpartsparts
if itifisittoo
is too
highhigh
humid.
humid.
C. Components work too slowly if it is too cold.
D. The
D. The riskrisk of ESD
of ESD increases
increases if the
if the humidity
humidity is too
is too low.low.
E. IfE.the
If the
environment
environmenttemperature
temperature is too
is too
high, high,
equipment
equipment
cancan
overheat
overheat
F. Components overheat if the humidity is too low.
6. Which condition refers to a sudden and dramatic increase in voltage, which is
usually caused by lighting?
A. Brownout
B. Sag
C. Spike
D. Surge
D. Surge

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7. It is planned but unscheduled maintenance that defined as the work performed to

adjust loose equipment, prevent a major failure and return the equipment to as
new operational condition.
A. Hex screw driver
B. Preventive maintenance
C. Computer hard disk
D. Breakdown maintenance
E E.Corrective maintenance
Corrective maintenance
F. None

8. Used to test the integrity of circuits and the quality of electricity in computer
components
A. Digital multimeter
B. Loopback adaptor
C. Antistatic wrist strap
D. Grounded mat

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9. It is a tools that protects computer equipment from ESD damage when

grounded to a computer chassis.
A. Antistatic wrist strap
B. Grounded mat
C. Antistatic bag
D. Rub your hand with your case

10. Used to stand on or to place hardware on to prevent static electricity from building
up, thereby protecting the equipment from ESD damage.
A. Rub your hand with your case
B. Hex screw driver
C. C.
Grounded matmat
Grounded
D. Antistatic Bag

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 Answer Key of self check questions

1. A
2. B
3. B,F
4. C
5. B,D,E
6. D
7. E
8. A
9. A
10.C

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 Identify and analyze IT system components

to be maintained

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 Identify and analyze system components to be maintained

 Computer cases: Computer case is an enclosure that holds all the
primary electronics of the PC. It is also called chassis.
 Computer Case:
 house all the internal components
 offers access to the external world
through ports and connectors
 prevent delicate circuits from damage
and EMI

 Prevent EMI from pc from affecting surrounding devices such as

TV, telephone, etc
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 EMI-is a radio frequency that is emitted from electronic or electrical

device. It interferes with surrounding equipment.
 A computer interferes with radio, telephone, TV, etc when it
generates EMI.
 Running a computer without cases causes interference to
surrounding devices.

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 There are different types of cases:

 Full-sized tower
 Mid-size tower
 Mini-tower
 Desktop
 Slim desktop
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 When we consider a case, the following things are cared about:

 The bigger the box, the more components it can hold.
 This gives it more expansion capability, better air flow which is good for
cooling. Large cases are easier to work with.
 The more compact the box, the less expansion potential it has. Working with
such cases is difficult and usually air flow is reduced.
 Definition of Motherboard
 At the heart of every PC live certain core components. Motherboard is the
PCs center of activity. All devices in a computer are in some way or another
are connected to motherboard.
 It defines the computer’s limit of speed, memory, and expandability.
 Types of Motherboard
 Motherboards come in several standardized configurations called form-
factors.
 Form-factors define the size, location of expansion slot, what sorts of power
supply it uses, its physical organization, etc of the motherboard.

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 The following are some of the common form-factors:

1)Obsolete form factors:
• Baby AT
• Full-size AT
• LPX
2) modern form factors:
• ATX
• Micro-ATX
• Flex ATX
• NLX
• WTX
3) Proprietary designs.
E.g Compaq

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 Baby AT

 The first popular pc motherboard was the original IBM PC released in 1981.
 IBM released a motherboard called XT in 1983. This motherboard became very
popular. Based on this motherboard, IBM released AT motherboard in 1984.

 Baby AT motherboards are 8.5x13 inches.

 They are distinguished by their shape and usually by the presence of single full
sized keyboard connector soldered onto the motherboard.
 All other devices are connected to the motherboard via cards and expansion slots
or cables.
 The serial and parallel ports are attached using cables that go between the
physical connectors mounted on the case and pin headers located on the
motherboard.

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 Full Sized AT
 Full Size AT is larger than Baby AT.
 It is 12 inches wide by 13.8 inches long.
 These motherboards fit into towers only.
 They do not fit into Baby AT or mini tower cases.
This kind of motherboard is common in older
machines.
 Both Full Size AT and Baby AT form factors put
the processor sockets(slots) and memory
sockets at the front side of the motherboard

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 AT motherboards get power through P8 and P9 connectors. Each of them has two
black wires for grounding and these powers must be kept together when the
connectors are plugged in i.e. all the four black wires sit in the center when
plugged unless stated on motherboard manual.

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 ATX Motherboard(AT Extended)

 ATX form factor was introduced in 1996 by Intel.
 It measures 12 by 9.6 inches. Although it is
approximately the same size as Baby AT,
 the processor sits near the back of the board.

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 In ATX motherboards, the connectors COM1, COM2, LPT, keyboard, mouse,

and USB are directly mounted on the motherboard.
 This motherboard requires a specifically designed chassis with an I/O access
opening.
 ATX motherboard is more intelligent than ordinary type.
 It has advanced control facilities where BIOS program checks the CPU
temperature and voltage, and the cooling fan RPM(rotation per minute), etc.
 If overheating occurs, the PC will shutdown automatically.

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 Some of the advantages of ATX over AT are:

 Soft power support: the ATX power supply is turned on and off using
signaling from the motherboard, not a physical toggle switch. This allows the
PC to be turned on or off under software control, allowing improved power
management.
 Reduced expansion card interference: the CPU and memory modules are
relocated so they can’t interfere with any bus expansion cards. This makes
upgrade easy because removing any installed cards is not necessary.

 Reduced drive bay interference: since the board is essentially 90 degrees

form AT style, there is much less overlap between the board and drive bays.
This means easier to access the motherboard and fewer cooling problem.

 Better Power Connector: ATX uses a single 20-pin connector instead of two
confusing connectors. You don’t have the risk of blowing up your pc
motherboard by connecting the power cable backwards.
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 Better air flow(cooling effect): The ATX power is intended to blow air into the
case rather than out of it. This cuts down dust. Furthermore, processor sockets
and RAM are located next to power supply. Because of this the power supply
fan can cool CPU heat sink. Current power supply fans blow air into or out of
the case.
 Integrated I/O connectors: AT motherboard uses pins and cables. In ATX, the
port is directly mounted on the motherboard. This improvement saves cost,
installation time, and improved reliability.

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 LPX
 LPX was developed by Western Digital in 1987.
 LP stands for Low Profile. It is called so because it allows small cases and
overall smaller system over AT.
 The primary goal of LPX is to reduce space usage and cost.
 LPX motherboards are distinguished by several distinctive features.
 The most noticeable is that expansion slots are mounted on a bus raiser card
that plugs into the motherboard.
 Expansion cards must plug sideways into raiser card. This allows for low
profile case design.
 The cards will be placed parallel to motherboard, not perpendicular to
motherboard as in AT or ATX systems.

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LPX motherboards often come with video display adapter cards built into the
motherboard.
They also have serial, parallel, and mouse connectors attached to them like ATX.
 Disadvantage:
 Lack of standardization
 Poor expandability (limited to two or three expansion slots)
 Poor upgradeability
 Poor cooling

Identification: check if expansion slot is parallel to motherboard. If so, it is either LPX

or NLX.
LPX motherboards often come with video display adapter cards built into the
motherboard. They also have serial, parallel, and mouse connectors attached to them
like ATX.
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 NLX Motherboard
 NLX stands for New Low Profile form factor. It was introduced by Intel in 1996.
It is designed to replace the non-standard LPX design used in the previous
Low Profile systems.

 NLX still uses the same general design as LPX:

 Smaller motherboard
 Raiser card for expansion cards
 Characteristics of NLX board:
 The motherboard plugs into the riser, unlike LPX where the card plugs into the
motherboard. This means motherboard can be removed from case without
affecting the raiser card.
 The motherboard has literally no internal cables or connectors attached to it.
All devices that plug into motherboard such as drive cables, power supply,
front panel light, switch connectors, etc.
 plug into the raiser instead. No unplugging is needed to remove the
motherboard except unplugging the motherboard from the raiser card.
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 Advantages over LPX:

 Revised design to support larger memory modules and modern DIMM
memory packaging
 Support for newest processor
technologies including the new Pentium II
using SEC packaging
 Support for AGP cards, USB, etc-newer
technologies
 More optimal location of CPU on the
motherboard. This allows easier access
and better cooling.

 Enhanced design such as motherboard can slide in and out of the system case
easily

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 Central Processing Unit

 CPU, also called microprocessor or simply processor, is the brain of PC.
 It performs the system’s data processing activity like calculation,
comparison, etc.
 It is the most expensive single component in the system, costing four or
more times than the motherboard it plugs into.
 The first CPU was created in 1971 by Intel. It is called the 4004.
 Brain of PC: it directly or indirectly controls the functions and activities of your
computer. It transmits information between devices and tells the devices what
to do. This is done by sending control information.
 Major producers of CPU are:
 Intel
 AMD
 Cyrix
 Sparc

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 Intel Chipsets
 The first CPU was created in 1971 by Intel. It was called the 4004. Data was
transmitted 4 bits at a time. In April 1972, Intel released another processor
called the 8008. The major change was that it is an 8-bit processor.
 In 1974, the 8080 was introduced. This was 10 times faster than the 8008 due
to faster clock rate. This processor was regarded as revolutionizing the PC
because it is the first CPU that is used in the first Personal Computer.
 Z-80: is a processor produced by a company called Zilog based on 8080.
 It was very popular. In 1976, Intel released the 8085. But it was not as popular
as Z-80.
 Generations of CPU
 There are several generations of CPU.
1) First Generation Processors (P1)
 First generation CPUs are:
 8086
 8088

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 8086

 In 1978, Intel introduced the 8086. It was a dramatic improvement over previous
chips: it was a full 16 bit design with 16-bit internal registers, and 16 bit data bus.
 This means it could work on 16 bit data at time.
 It contains 29,000 transistors.
 It runs at speed of 5MHZ
 It uses 20 bit address bus. It could address up to 1MB of memory using this
mechanism.
 The Chip brought with it the original x86 instruction set that is still present x86
compatible chips such as Pentium IV. It was very expensive.
 8088
 Though 8086 was a great chip, it was expensive and more importantly required an
expensive 16-bit support chip and motherboard design. To reduce cost down, in
1979, Intel released a crippled version of the 8086 called 8088. The 8088
processor used the same internal core as 8086, had the same 16-bit registers and
could address the same 1MB memory.
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 However, external data bus is reduced to 8 bits. This allowed:

 Less expensive boards could be made
 Compatible with 8085 8-bits chips to be used
 Fully software compatible with 8086, it could run 16-bit software
 Second Generation Processors (P2)
 Intel introduced the 80286 in 1982. It is also called 286. 286 has two modes
of operation:
 The real mode
 The protected mode
Real mode:
 Acts essentially as 8086 chip
 It is fully object code compatible with 8086 and 8088 i.e. can run codes
written for 8086 and 8088.
 Used to run older software's written for 8086 or 8088
 Recognizes 1MB of RAM
Protected Mode:
 In this mode, the chip is something new.
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 80286:
 it uses 24 bit addressing mechanism (16MB of memory can be addressed)
 uses virtual memory. Virtual memory is an area in hard disk that is used as
RAM when RAM is not enough to hold the data.
 first chip that supports multitasking
 speed of 6-12MHZ
 only few software's took advantage of the mode
 Disadvantage:
 Protected mode to real mode switching requires restarting

 Third Generation Processors (P3)

 Intel introduced 80386 in 1985. It is a full 32 bit processor optimized for high
speed operation and multi-tasking operating system
32 bit eternal buss
32 bit register true 32 bit processor
32 bit address bus

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 It can execute real mode instructions of 8086 or 8088 processor. It can switch
mode under software control without resetting. It also has another mode
called virtual real mode. This enable several real modes to run simultaneously
under protected mode. The protected mode of 386 is fully compatible with
the protected mode of 286. It runs at a speed of 16-33MHZ
 Fourth Generation Processors(P4)
 The persistent push fir speed and performance resulted in the development
of 80486. It was introduced in 1989. It has 1.2 million transistors i.e the first
to reach millions. The speed varies from 25-120 MHZ. It could address 4GB of
RAM and 64 TB of virtual memory. It has built in math coprocessor( older
versions offered separate math coprocessor as an option). The combination
speeded up graphics programs that used floating point math.
 P4 supports pipelining.
 Pipelining is the process of doing instruction fetching, decoding, execution,
and result storage parallely. Prior to this they are done sequentially. This
increases the speed of the processor very much. Such processors are called
superscalar.
 Heat sink and fan is introduced for the first time.
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 Fifth Generation Processors (P5)

 Intel dropped the numbered naming of CPUs and called them Pentium. Still
they are considered as x86 machines.
 Pentium MMX(Multimedia Extension)
 This is an enhanced processor for multimedia and communication
processing capability.
 It has 57 special multimedia instructions.
 Speed: 66-266MHZ
 Onboard cache(L1)
 Sixth Generation Processors (P6)
 Pentium Pro
 Introduced in 1995 to compete for the high end server market. It is SPGA with 387
pins. It is connected to the motherboard
via socket 8. It had 64 bit data bus and 36 bit
address bus. Using this method, up to 4GB of RAM
could be addressed. It had 16kb of L1 cache
memory, and L2 cache of 256,512,1MB. The
presence L2 cache gives performance boost. It has
a speed of 150-200MHZ. It is considered as
Pentium I.
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 Summary of generation of Processor

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 Pentium II
 Introduced in 1997. It has 64 bits data bus and 36-bit wide address bus. It has
a speed of 233,266,300,or 333 MHZ. It has 32 KB of L1 cache and 512 KB of L2
cache. It combines the software performance of Pentium pro and multimedia
capability of MMX. It uses slot rather than socket i.e. they SEC CPU type.
They are connected to the motherboard through slot 1.
 Intel Celeron
 Though Pentium is a very good processor, they are very expensive and not
every one could afford it. For this reason, Intel introduced a lower end
processor called Celeron which are inexpensive. Celeron is available in both
SEC and Socket type. Improved Celeron became very popular.
 Intel Xenon
 Intel introduced a new CPU brand called Xenon. It was released for use in
high end servers and high performance desktop use. It was introduced in
1998. All models are SEC package.

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 Pentium III
 Introduced in1999. It has 28million transistors.
 Speed: 500-733 and up to 1GB. It incorporates MMX technology and
streaming SIMD extensions for enhanced floating point and 3-D application
performance.
 It consists of 70 new instructions that enhance the possibility and
performance of advanced imaging, 3D, streaming audio, video, and speech
recognition.
 It came in SEC package as well as PGA package. Celeron and Xenon versions
are there.
 Net Burst Micro Architecture (P7)
 Pentium IV
 Introduced in 2000.
 Speed: 1-4 GHZ
 There is low end Celeron and high end Xenon versions as always.
 It is based on a new architecture called NetBurst Microarchitecture.
 Sockets: LGA 775,Soccket 423.socket 478
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 Intel Core Micro Architecture(P8)

 Intel introduced another type of CPU called Intel Core 2 in July ,2006. It is
based on new CPU architecture called Intel Core Micro Architecture.
 Sockets: LGA 775(Land Grid Array), Socket M(introduced for Intel Core line of
processors
 Other CPUs
 AMD
AMD produces CPU that competes with Intel processors.
Some are:
 AMD K5
 AMD K6
 AMD Athlon
 AMD Duron
 Sparc International, Inc
 Produces an open architecture sparc processors.
 Well known and used for servers
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 CPU Types
1. Dual Inline Pin Package(DIPP):
 has a set of pins that protrude in two sides of the CPU.
Used in 8086,8088,80286 CPUs

2. Pin Grid Array(PGA): the pins form straight line.

3. Staggered Pin Grid Array(SPGA): the pins form diagonal line.

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4. Single Edge Contact(SEC): No pins and it uses slot.

 CPU Cooling
 Specialized cooling system became serious starting from 486. Earlier
chips ran at allow speed and contained relatively few transistors.
Because of this they needed no specialized
cooling. Heat sinks conduct heat from CPU to
heat sink and then radiate it to air. Good
cooling depends on the transfer of heat
between the CPU and heat sink. The heat sin
and CPU should contact each other to the
maximum surface area possible.
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 This allows heat to flow easily.

 There are two cooling mechanism:
 Passive Heat Sink
Passive heat sinks have no moving parts. They are made up of aluminum.
An aluminum extrusion creates fins. They cool the CPU by using thermal
conduction and radiation. The heat sink draws heat from the CPU and air
flowing through the heat sink cools the heat sink itself.

 Active Heat Sink

Active heat sink adds a small fan that blows directly onto the heat sink
metal to ensured direct air flow. An active heat sink cools better than
passive heat sink by forcing air flow. Unfortunately, the fans have short life
span and they are the first thing to fail in most PCs.

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Troubleshooting
1. If the CPU does not work, the system gives beep sounds when turned on. The
number of beeps varies
2. from BIOS to BIOS. On AMI BIOS, five beeps indicate CPU problem. Visit the internet
for list of such errors.
Replacing and Upgrading CPU
3. Upgrade: installing another device which is better than the previous one in terms of
performance. Poor upgrade may lead to total failure.
4. Replace: substitute with equivalent device in case the previous one failed.
5. One thing to consider when we replace/upgrade CPU is the CPU socket on your
motherboard.
Three most common sockets are:
 Low Insertion Force(LIF)
 Zero Insertion Force(ZIF)
 Single Edge Contact(SEC)

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Overheated CPU causes:

 System crash
 Random reboot
 Memory errors
 Disk problems
 Application errors
 Computer Memory
 physical devices used to store data or programs On temporary or permanent
basis
 Represent information in binary code, written as sequences of 0s and 1s.
 could be an on-off switch, an electrical capacitor that can store or lose a
charge, in primary storage
 usually meant to refer to the semiconductor technology that is used to store
information.

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Structure of Data flow

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 Computer memory basics

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 Types of RAM
 Dynamic RAM (DRAM).
 Static RAM (SRAM)

 DRAM
 This memory id dynamic. Because of this, it must be constantly refreshed
periodically (every few milliseconds). Otherwise the memory will drain and the
data is lost. During the process of refreshing, the CPU can’t access the memory. It
is called wait state. Refreshing caused DRAM to be slower than SRAM. They also
use much power than SRAM. But because of their cheapness, they are the
primary RAM in all computers.
 The memory cells in DRAM use tiny capacitors that retain charge. Capacitors are
devices that can keep charge for some time until discharged. They use one
transistor per bit. Because of this they can be densely packed. This allows more
memory capacity per chip than other types of memory.
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Note: there are 256million transistors in 256MB RAM chip. Compare this with
Pentium II which has 7.5 million transistors.

Disadvantage:
 DRAM is slow, much slower than CPU. This affects the speed of CPU.
It may take as much as 10% of CPU time

 SRAM

 It is called because it does not require periodic refreshing unlike DRAM. It is much
faster than DRAM and able to keep pace with processor. As long as there is power,
SRAM keeps what is stored.
 SRAM uses transistors for storage purpose, no capacitors are used. Because of
this, no recharging required. It uses 6 transistors (flip flops) per bit. DRAM is lower
in density which means they are larger physically and store fewer bits overall. The
high number of transistors used per bit makes it more expensive and physically
larger. This prevented its wide use as computer memory. SRAM is used to build
cache memory.
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Type speed density cost

DRAM slow high low
SRAM fast low high

 RAM Modules
 There are two types of RAM modules (memory packages)
 Single Inline Memory Module(SIMM)
 Dual Inline Memory Module(DIMM)
 SIMM
SIMMs are available in two forms:
 30 pin and
 72 pin
 The 30 pin SIMMs are available in sizes 116MB.
 They transmit one byte of data (8 bits) at a time.
 They are older standard.
 The 72 pin SIMMs are available in 132MB.
 They transmit 4 bytes (32 bits) at a time.
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SIMMs are inserted into a socket on the motherboard that will tightly hold them.
They are available in single sided or double sided which means DRAM chip is available
in both sides of the SIMM or not.
30 pin—single side
72 pin—both single and double sided
 DIMM
1. DIMM is used in latter versions of computer system. DIMM has 168 pins. They
transmit 64 bits of data at a time. They are becoming very popular. They are not
available in smaller sizes such as 1MB or 4MB. They are available in capacities
from 8 MB to 256MB.

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 DIMMs are inserted into special sockets on the motherboard similar to those used
for SIMMs. They differ from SIMM in:
 they are larger and wider
 SIMMs have contact on both sides of the circuit board but they are tied
together.
 A 30 pin SIMM has 30 contacts on each side of the circuit board but each
pair is connected. This is true for 72 pin SIMMs. DIMMs, however, have
different connections on each side of the circuit board. So, 168 pin DIMM
have 84 contacts on each side and they are not redundant.
 A small version of DIMM is seen which is called Small Outline DIMM (SODIMM).
They are used for laptop PCS. Two types:
 144 pin SODIMM64 bits wide
 72 pin SODIMM32 bits wide

3 0 /7 2 p in S IM M 1 6 8 p in D IM M
n o tc h
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 The main difference between SIMMs and DIMMs is that DIMMs have separate
electrical contacts on each side of the module, while the contacts on SIMMs on
both sides are redundant.
 Another difference is that standard SIMMs have a 32-bit data path, while
standard DIMMs have a 64-bit data path. Since Intel's Pentium has (as do several
other processors) a 64-bit bus width, it requires SIMMs installed in matched pairs
in order to complete the data bus.
 The processor would then access the two SIMMs simultaneously. DIMMs were
introduced to eliminate this practice.
 Memory Banks
 Manufacturers arrange memory slots on motherboard in electronic groups of
one, two, or four RAM slots according to the type of RAM and processor. This
grouping is called memory banks. The memory
 bank matches the processors’ data bus.
 the number of slots to form a bank= bus width of CPU/bus width of RAM slot

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e.g.
CPU bus=64 bits
RAM bus=8 bits
Bank=64/8=8 slots. 8 slots form one bank in such case.

 The basic rule of bank is you need to fill a bank completely with identical RAM
modules. Banks should be filled completely or left completely empty. You
should fill at least one bank on the computer for it to
 work properly. For 64 bit CPU, one 168 pin DIMM slot makes a bank. For the
same CPU, two 72 pin SIMM slots form a bank.

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 Conventional DRAM:
 the oldest and slowest DRAM technology is called regular
or conventional DRAM. It uses standard
 memory addressing method, where first the row address
is sent to memory and then column address is sent.
 This type of DRAM is now quite obsolete and is not used
on any new systems, having been replaced by fast page
mode memory and newer technologies.

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 Fast Page Mode RAM (FPM RAM)

 FPM is slightly faster than conventional DRAM. This
memory works by sending row addresses just once for
many accesses to memory locations in near each other.
 This improves access time. In older ones, you have to
specify the row and column address. Despite its name,
FPM is the slowest memory technology used in modern
PCs.

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 Extended Data Out RAM (EDORAM)

 it is the most common type of asynchronous DRAM. It is
slightly faster than FPM. This is because its timing
circuits are modified. The architecture allows to
simultaneously read new data while discharging the old.
 It has one notch in the center.

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 To use EDO, your motherboard chipset must support it. It

has 72 pins (SIMM module).
 It allows to begin a new column address instruction while
it is reading data at the current address.
 Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM):
 This is a relatively new and different kind of RAM. It
differs from earlier types in that it is tied to the
 system clock i.e. synchronous to system clock. It is a great
improvement over FPM or EDO RAM.

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 It delivers data in high speed bursts. It also runs at a

speed of system bus due to synchronization.
 It is new standard RAM for modern PC.
 It is sold in DIMM form and is often rated by megahertz
speed rather than nanosecond cycling of previous RAM
types. It has 168 pins and two notches.

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 Double Data Rate SDRAM( DDR SDRAM)

 DDR works the same way as SDRAM. It doubles bandwidth
of memory by transferring data twice per cycle—on both
the rising and falling edges of the clock signal.
 Clock changes from 0 to 1 and from 1 to 0. Both changes
trigger data transfer in DDR RAM which is not the case in
previous RAM types.

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 Rambus DRAM (RDRAM)

 This is a radical new memory design found in high end PC
systems.
 It was first developed for game technology and it became
popular.

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 They are called narrow channel device unlike wide

channel systems which transmit as much as processor’s
data bus i.e. they are not as wide as processor’s data bus.
They run at 800MHZ.
 The overall throughput is 800x2=1.6GB per second.
 This is twice as fast as that of SDRAM. It has two notches
in the center and 168 pins.
 The narrowing of the channel allows the running at high
speeds. It transfers data on both rising and falling edges
of clock like DDR.

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 Video RAM (VRAM)

 Modern video adapters use their own specialized RAM
that is separate from main system memory. The
demands placed on video memory are far greater than
placed on RAM.
 They have to be accessed at faster speeds. They allow
the memory to be accessed by CPU and video card’s
refreshing circuitry at the same time.
 This is called dual porting. It is used on graphics
adapters.

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 Windows Accelerator Card RAM (WRAM)

 It is designed for two reasons:
 To speed up video(faster video)
 To speed up Windows operating system
 It could be read and written at the same time. As video
technology became more advanced, VRAM could not
provide high quality video. WRAM increased speed and
provided excellent video. Most video cards now use
SDRAM for video RAM.

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 Cache Memory
 Cache is a high speed buffer made up of SRAM that
directly feeds the processor. It runs at the speed
 close or equal to the processor. This enables the CPU to
use its full potential by getting data and instructions
from the cache memory without any wait state.
 RAM is slow and slows down the processor because the
processor has to wait during memory refreshing.
 To avoid wait states, data is preloaded from RAM
(DRAM) to cache memory and the CPU can continue to
process during wait states by getting data from cache
memory though RAM is not available.
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 There are two types of cache memory:

 L1 cache
 L2 cache
 L1 Cache (Level 1)
 It is directly built into the processor and is actually part of the
processor. Starting from 486, there are internal caches in CPU.
 All commands for the processor go through this cache. It stores a
backlog of commands so that if wait state is encountered, the
CPU continues to process using commands from the cache.

CPU and L1 cache

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 L2 Cache
 This cache is mounted directly on the motherboard, outside
CPU. It is called Level 2 cache. It is same as L1 cache but larger. It
can be expanded (add additional capacity) on some
motherboards.
 If you install additional L2 cache, check the CMOS set up and
enable the cache. Some L2 caches are found on the processor
itself.
 L2 caches located on the motherboard run at the speed of
motherboard.

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 Memory Usage
 The IBM pc divides the memory into two areas:
 Conventional memory
 Reserved memory

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 Conventional Memory
 Takes the first 640KB of the memory
 It is used for operating system and application programs
 DOS program use only this memory
 Reserved Memory
 The remaining area out of 1MB not occupied by conventional
memory is called reserved memory.
 It is 384KB in size. It is used for BIOS, Video RAM, ROM, and so on.

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 Memory Division
 As a result of a decision made in earlier PCs, memory is broken
into four basic pieces(with some pieces being divided further):
 Conventional memory
 Upper memory area(UMA)
 High memory area(HMA)
 Extended memory
 Conventional Memory
 The first 640KB of system memory is called conventional
memory. This is a place where DOS and DOS programs
conventionally run. Originally, this is the place where programs
run. Without special software support, DOS can’t run programs
that are not in this special area.

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 Conventional memory occupies the address 00000h to 9FFFFh.

 The upper memory area that are not used by ROM or for Video RAM
are available for use by other programs. But they are very small and
can’t be used by programs. They are used for loading memory
resident programs and drivers. To use this area, driver programs are
required to access them. The driver used in DOS environment is
EMM386.exe. HIMEM.SYS is also used.

 Upper Memory Area (UMA)

 The upper 384KB of the first Megabyte of RAM directly above
conventional memory is the UMA. This area is reserved for video
RAM, BIOS, motherboard BIOS, etc. It starts from the address
A0000 through FFFFF. It is used as follows:

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 First 128 KB is called video RAM. It is reserved for use by video

adapters. Address range A0000BFFFF.Anything displayed on the
screen is stored here.
 The next 128KB is reserved for the adapter BIOS that resides in ROM
chips on some adapter boards plugged into bus slots. E.g network
adapters (NIC), VGA compatible video adapters, etc. The address
range is C0000DFFFF.
 The last 128KB is reserved for motherboard BIOS i.e. instructions
stored in ROM chips. The bootstrap loader also resides here. The
address range is E0000FFFFF.

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 ROM Shadowing
 One problem with ROM those used for system BIOS and Video BIOS
is that it is slow. Access to BIOS codes are very slow relative to
system memory (RAM). For this reason, system mirror the ROM
code
 into RAM to improve performance. This is called ROM shadowing.
ROM is copied to RAM and used from RAM.
 The RAM is assigned address originally used by ROM i.e. there is
memory address overlap between RAM and ROM. This disables the
ROM.
 Extended Memory
• In modern systems, the memory above 1MB is used as extended
memory. The name comes from the fact that this memory was added
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 Extended memory is not accessible under real mode. It is addressed

only under protected mode, the native mode of modern processors
starting from 286.
 Two ways to use extended memory:
 A full protected mode operating system like Windows NT can
access extended memory directly
 Operating system or application that run in real mode(DOS,
Windows 3.x, Windows 95) use an extended memory manager to
access the extended memory. The most commonly used manager
is HIMEM.SYS. This memory manager sets up extended memory
based on extended memory specification(XMS). XMS is a
standard that PC programs use to access extended memory.

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