UNIT-3

INTRODUCTION
WHAT IS MEANT BY A BEAM IN ENGINEERING?
A beam is a structural element which is capable of withstanding
transverse loads. Simply a beam transfers its applied loads to the
supports.

WHAT IS MEANT BY A SUPPORT?

A support is an element which bears the weight of a beam and
keeps it upright. Simply we can say that it is a thing which keeps
beam in Equilibrium.

WHAT IS MEANT BY A LOAD?

A load in this concept refers to the forces acting on Structures. This
is the reason these can be also called as structural loads.
 TYPES OF SUPPORTS
Basing on the concept how they are supporting
the beam they are classified into 4 types
1. Fixed Support
2. Simple Support
3. Roller Support
4. Hinged Support
FIXED SUPPORT
This support keeps the end of the beam fixed,
i.e. The beam end resists to take any kind of
translation or bending moment. In the below
figures we are going to see how this support
will be.
SIMPLE SUPPORT
In this type of support, the beam is allowed to
rest freely on a support as we can see in the
below fig and there by we can observe that
the beam is free to move in any direction and
also to rotate about the support
ROLLER SUPPORT
A Roller support gives capability of movement to
the respected beam connected to it may be
along normal to the guides or it can also
rotate about the support as we can see in
below figures
HINGED SUPPORT
A Hinged support restricts the movement of the
beam in any directions but it will allow the
beam to rotate about the support just like a
door which is an best example of hinged
support
 TYPES OF BEAMS
Basing on the concept how they are supported
they are classified into 6 types
1. Fixed Beam
2. Cantilever Beams
3. Beam with one end hinged and other end
roller
4. Simply Supported Beams
5. Over Hanging Beams
6. Continuous Beams
 FIXED BEAM
A Beam which is having fixed supports on both
of its ends, it is named as fixed beams and we
can see some animated and real examples of
these kind of beams and how they are
restricting the movement of the beam
 CANTILEVER BEAM
• A Beam which having a fixed support on one
end and other end is set free, it is known as
cantilever beam as we can see some best
examples of cantilever beam below
BEAM WITH ONE END HINGED AND OTHER END ROLLER

This beam has one of its end hinged and the

other side of the beam is supported with
rollers. These kind of beams are capable to
withstand loads in any direction. Below we
can see a conventional figure and a bridge
having this kind of support
 SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM
A Beam with simple supports exactly at two
ends of the beam then it is called as simply
supported beam. In the real world people
wont tend to design anything with simple
supports, but one of the ancient monument
was built up by this concept
 OVER HANGING BEAMS
• These beams will also have supports but one
end or both ends of the beam will be having
some extension after the supports as we can
see in below figure.
 CONTINUOUS BEAMS

• It is a beam which carries more than two

supports and some of the examples of
continuous beams are bridges which are
shown below
 TYPES OF LOADS
Basing on the action of the forces the loads are
classified into 3 types
1. Point Load (or) Concentrated Load
2. Uniformly Distributed Load
3. Uniformly Varying Load
 POINT LOAD (or) CONCENTRATED LOAD

• When a load acts concentrated at a definite

point then it is named as a concentrated load
or point load. We can see some best examples
of point load in the below figures
 UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD
• A distributed load is a load which is spread on
some length of a beam, i.e. The reason it is
measured in intensity with unit
Newton/meter. If the intensity is constant
along the length then it is named as uniformly
distributed load
 UNIFORMLY VARYING LOAD
• Whenever the load distributed along the
length of the beam varies in intensity
uniformly, according to some law. Then it is
named as uniformly varying load and we can
see some conventional figures below which
are representing uniformly varying loads
 LONG COLUMN
• When the ratio of effective length to the least radius of
gyration is greater than 45, then it is called a long column.
• A long column is subjected to bending moment in addition to direct
compressive stress.
• The load carrying capacity of a long column is less than a short column
• The load carrying capacity of a long column depends upon slenderness
ratio (slenderness ratio increases then the capacity of the column
decreases
• When length of column is more as compared to its c/s dimension, it is
called long column.
Long Column=Le/rmin > 50
Where,
Le = effective length of column
rmin = Minimum radius of gyration
 Short Column
• When the ratio of effective length to the least lateral
dimensions of the column is less than 12, then it is called a
short column.
(or)
• When the ratio of effective length to the least radius of
gyration is less than 45, then it is called a short column
• When length of column is less as compared to its c/s
dimension, it is called Short column.
Short Column=Le/rmin <50
Or,Le/d < 15
Crushing Load : The load at which short column fails by
crushing is called crushing load.
 INTERMEDIATE COLUMN
• Column is intermediate when
4d < L < 30d
and
30 < Le /r min < 100 or Critical slenderness ratio.
 WATERPROOFING OF ROOFS
A typical application of liquid applied roof
membranes consists five main steps, which
should all be treated with utmost importance,
following the product manufacturer
instructions. These steps are:
• cleaning,
• priming,
• treatment of details,
• main coating application, and
• inspection
STEP1- cleaning of the substrate.
• All successful liquid applied membrane
applications require superior adhesion. Because of
this reason, proper cleaning is just as important as
the actual correct application of the liquid material.
• Typically, pressure washing is the most common
method for cleaning the substrate surface.
• This process eliminates the so-called bond
breakers. Additionally, this will expose details
needing treatment, that may not be visible at a first
glance.
STEP2- priming of the surface
• Priming of the surface is designed to improve
the adhesion of the membrane.
• Primers also aid to block bleeding of the
bituminous oils from the existing roof
through the liquid membrane.
• Before the application of most primers, the
contractors must ensure the surface is dry.
• To reduce drying time contractors generally
use air blower or torches.
STEP3- the treatment of details.
• Contractors must carefully treat all details and only after
this step is completed, should they resume the field
application of the liquid membrane.
• Details such as interior and exterior corners, as well as
wall to floor type corners, metal flashing terminations
and penetrations such as pipes, vents, drains, etc. are
typically pre-treated with reinforcing fabric embedded
into the liquid membrane and/or with a flashing grade
sealant.
• These are the most critical points on the roof that can be
easily overseen, therefore they demand special
consideration.
• Adequate curing time required by the materials used for
details treatment must be followed before applying the
main coating.
STEP4-the application of the liquid membrane onto the
roof.
• There are two kinds of applications of liquid applied
membranes; some require the impregnation of
reinforcing mat during installation and some do not.
• Regardless if the fabric mat is mandatory or not, most
of the manufactures require the coating application to
be performed in two or more successive layers.
• The consumption rate of each coating product is
stated in the manufacturers’ technical specifications.
• Method of application, substrate porosity,
temperature, and waste are external factors that may
influence the specified consumption rate.
STEP 5-
• In most projects inspection is required by the manufacturer
during all phases of the application. This may include, coverage
of the primer, pull-out mock-up test, visual inspection of the
detail treatments, and nonetheless inspecting the millage of
applied coating.
• Respecting the wet film thickness during application is important.
Too much liquid product applied at once will result in uncured
material underneath the skinned surface of the membrane.
• Not enough material to meet the required millage most likely will
lead to premature failure of the membrane.
• Fish-mouths at the edge of the fabric signalize improper
coverage of the reinforcement mat at the overlapping section.
• All such errors must be noted and corrected at the time of the
inspection.
 RETAINING WALLS
• A retaining wall is a structure designed and
constructed to resist the lateral pressure of soil
when there is a desired change in ground elevation
that exceeds the angle of repose of the soil.
• Retaining walls is used for supporting soil laterally
so that it can be retained at different levels on the
two sides.
• Retaining walls are structure designed to restrain
soil to a slope that it would not naturally keep to
( typically a steep, near vertical or vertical slope).
 Types Of Retaining Wall
• Gravity wall
• Reinforced retaining wall
• Concrete cantilever retaining wall
• Buttressed retaining wall
• Reinforced soil Retaining wall
• Green retaining wall
• Mechanical stabilization wall
• Anchored wall
 Gravity wall

• Gravity wall depends on their mass to resist

pressure from behind and may have a better
setback to improve stability by leaning back
toward the retained soil.
• For short landscape walls, they are often
made from mortar less stone and segment
concrete units.
• Dry stacked gravity walls is somewhat flexible
and do not require a rigid footing.
 Reinforced retaining wall
Reinforced concrete and reinforced masonry
walls on spread foundation are gravity
structures in which the stability against
overturning is provided by the weight of the
wall and reinforcement bars in the walls.
 Concrete cantilever retaining wall
• A cantilever retaining wall is one that consists
of a wall that is connected to the foundation. A
cantilevered wall holds back a significant
amount of soil, so it must be well engineered.
• They are the most common type used as
retaining walls. The cantilevered wall resists on
a slab foundation. This slab foundation is also
loaded by backfill and thus the weight of the
backfill and surcharge also stabilizes the wall
against overtaking and sliding.
 Buttressed retaining wall
• Buttressed retaining wall are cantilever wall straightened with
counter forts monolithic with the back of the wall slab and
base slab.
• The counter fort act as tension stiffeners and connect the wall
slab and the base to reduce the bending moment in vertical
walls of great height, counter fort is used spaced at distance
from each other equal to or slightly larger than one half of the
height counter fort is used for high walls with hight greater
than 8 to 12 m.
Reinforced soil Retaining wall
• Mechanically stabilized earth walls are those structure which
is made using steel or geo textile soil reinforcement which is
placed in a layer within a controlled granular fill.
• Reinforced soil can also be used as retaining walls if they are
built as an integral part of the design and to act as an
alternative to the use of reinforced concrete or other
solutions on the grounds of economy or as a result of the
ground conditions.

Green retaining wall

• Green retaining walls can be used to retain more gentle
slopes. A Geo cellular structure such as a series of
honeycomb cells can be embedded into the surface of the
slope to stabilize it, and the individual cells can then be
planted.
Mechanical stabilization wall
• Mechanically stabilized earth walls are walls that can
tolerate some differential movement. The wall face is in filled
with granular soil whilst retaining the backfill soil. Advantages
of the MSE wall, they don’t require a framework.

Anchored wall
• An anchored retaining wall can be constructed in any of the
afore mentioned styles but also includes additional strength
using cables or other stays anchored in the rock or soil
behind.
• It usually drove into the material with boring, anchors are
then expanded at the end of the cable, either by mechanical
means or often by injecting pressurized concrete, which
expands to form a bulb in the soil.
 Uses of Retaining Wall
• Retaining walls is used for supporting soil
laterally so that it can be retained at different
levels on the two sides.
• They are used Mostly when making a dam.