Heating, Ventilating and Air-conditioning

(MEEN-4311)

Dr. Waqar A. Khan

Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering 

College of Engineering, Prince Mohammad Bin Fahd University, 
Al Khobar 31952, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

3rd Faculty Development Workshop 07-18 August , 2006

 Chapter 5: Direct-Contact Transfer Processes
and Equipment
CLOs 2.1, 2.2, 2.3
In chapter 3, we considered the psychrometric analysis of a
number of heating and air conditioning systems consisting of
air processing equipment like mixing sections, heaters,
cooling coils, air washers, and humidifiers.
The latter three devices are called direct-contact devices
because the energy and mass transfer between air and water
occurs across the interface separating them.
For the design, sizing, and performance evaluation of
these equipment, we need to analyze the heat and mass
transfer processes occurring within these devices.
The distinguishing features of these processes are: (i) there
is direct physical contact between air and water, and (ii) there
is simultaneous
3rd Faculty Development
mass and energy
Workshop
exchange
07-18between
August , air
2006and
 Chapter 5: Direct-Contact Transfer Processes
and Equipment
In this Chapter, we shall develop heat and mass transfer
models for air–water direct-contact equipment like air
washers, dehumidifiers, and cooling towers.

 Review the basic principles of mass diffusion and

convection.

3rd Faculty Development Workshop 07-18 August , 2006

 Review of Mass Transfer Principles
In chapter 4, we presented the basic equations governing the
transfer of heat by conduction and convection.
In a similar manner, the transfer of mass occurs by two
processes known as mass diffusion and mass convection.
The mass transfer processes are governed by the equations
having similar mathematical forms.

Steady mass diffusion through a plane wall

3rd Faculty Development Workshop 07-18 August , 2006

 Review of Mass Transfer Principles
Consider mass diffusion of a single species in a stationary
medium, for example, a solid or a stagnant gas.
A practical example of such a process, of interest in air
conditioning systems, is the diffusion of water vapor through
porous building materials.
The difference in mass fraction (concentration) of a species
is the driving potential for mass diffusion. The mass fraction,
mi of species i in a mixture of species is defined as the ratio
of the density i of species i to the total density .
The mass flux of the species 1 is governed by Fick’s law of
diffusion which may expressed as

3rd Faculty Development Workshop 07-18 August , 2006

 Review of Mass Transfer Principles

The total mass flow rate of the species 1 can be written as

The mass diffusion resistance as

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 Steady convection mass transfer
The analogy between heat transfer and mass transfer can be
extended to study forced convection mass transfer where a
species diffuses through a fluid in motion.
A practical example is the drying of a moist material by an air
stream flowing over it.

3rd Faculty Development Workshop 07-18 August , 2006

 Steady convection mass transfer
A fluid stream flowing steadily, at constant temperature, over a
thin coating on a horizontal plate. The coating is made of a
substance that dissolves in the fluid as it flows over it. The
distribution of the mass fraction (concentration) of the substance
in the fluid stream at a section far downstream from the entry
section, is depicted in Fig. (b). The mass fraction of the
substance decreases progressively to a lower value in the
‘undisturbed’ fluid stream, commonly called the free stream. The
substance is transported across the fluid stream by diffusion and
convection as in the case of convective heat transfer.
A thin layer of fluid adjacent to the plate is stationary due to the
presence of the solid plate. The transfer of substance through
this thin stationary layer of fluid occurs by mass diffusion and
therefore the mass flux is given by Fick’s law as
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 Steady convection mass transfer
The mass transfer rate from the coating to the bulk fluid, which
occurs by forced convection, is expressed in terms of a mass
transfer coefficient, hm [kgs-1m-2] using the following rate equation

where

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 Model for Simultaneous Heat and Mass Transfer
In most practical direct-contact transfer equipment like humidifiers,
cooling coils, and cooling towers mass transfer processes driven
by concentration differences, are coupled to heat transfer
processes driven by temperature differences.
In this section we develop a simplified model for simultaneous
heat and mass transfer based on the concept of enthalpy
potential. The physical situation is depicted schematically in Fig.

3rd Faculty Development Workshop 07-18 August , 2006

Model for Simultaneous Heat and Mass Transfer

3rd Faculty Development Workshop 07-18 August , 2006

 Model for Simultaneous Heat and Mass Transfer

Applying the steady-state sensible and latent energy balance to

the elemental control volume we obtain the following equations:

3rd Faculty Development Workshop 07-18 August , 2006

 Model for Simultaneous Heat and Mass Transfer

where

The Lewis number plays an important role in combined

heat and mass transfer processes, occurring in air
washers, humidifiers, dehumidifiers and cooling towers.
Now the total rate of energy transfer, \\\\ to the water film
from the air is

3rd Faculty Development Workshop 07-18 August , 2006

 Model for Simultaneous Heat and Mass Transfer
The difference between the mean enthalpy of the air stream, h
the saturated air enthalpy at the water temperature, hc may be
expressed as
Then the total rate of energy transfer can be written as

Assuming that the Lewis number, Le = 1, then hc=hd

It is found that for most practical situations involving direct-contact

equipment in air conditioning systems, the second term on the
RHS of above Eq. is much smaller than the first term.
3rd Faculty Development Workshop 07-18 August , 2006
 Air Washers or Humidifiers
An air washer is a device used to humidify air
by spraying water as fine droplets into the air
stream, as depicted schematically in Fig.
The water is sprayed with the aid of a series of
nozzles, supplied with water from a sump-tank,
using an external pump.
Located at the exit of the air washer is a
draft eliminator which helps minimize the
carry over of water droplets with the air stream.
The water that does not evaporate falls to the
bottom and is returned to the sump-tank to be
recirculated by the pump.
Make-up water is supplied from an external
source to compensate for the water entering the air stream by evaporation.

3rd Faculty Development Workshop 07-18 August , 2006

 Worked Examples
Example 1: Dry air blows across a wet-bulb thermometer
whose bulb is enclosed in a damp cover supplied with
water.
(i) The thermometer reads 18.3°C. What is the
temperature of the dry air?
(ii) If the air flowing across the bulb is at 32.2°C while
the wet-bulb temperature remains at 18.3°C,
calculate the relative humidity of the air stream.

The ambient pressure is constant at 101.3 kPa. Forced

convection heat and mass transfer correlations, give the
ratio, (hm/hc) = 1.11.
3rd Faculty Development Workshop 07-18 August , 2006
 Worked Examples
Solution: In a wet-bulb thermometer, the air flowing over the damp
bulb of the thermometer exchanges heat by forced convection
with the bulb. This heat supplies the energy needed to evaporate
water from the surface of the bulb. The sensible and latent heat
rate equations are respectively,

where A is the area of the bulb. The species 1 is water vapor. The
concentration of water vapor at the wet surface, and the air
stream are m1s and m1e respectively. The latent heat of
vaporization is hfg. Under steady conditions the two energy flow
rates are equal. Therefore
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 Worked Examples

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 Worked Examples
From energy balance

The humidity ratio is 7.903x10-3. The saturated vapor pressure at

32.2°C is 4.838 kPa

Therefore relative humidity,  of the air stream is

26.5%
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 Worked Examples
Example 2: Consider the idealized flow arrangement depicted
in Fig. where air at 30°C and 50% relative humidity flows
over a film of water maintained at a constant temperature. The
pressure is constant 101.3 kPa. For water temperatures of (i)
28°C, (ii) 20°C and (iii) 13°C, calculate the rates of sensible
heat transfer, the latent heat transfer and total energy transfer
per unit area of the water film. Assume that the convective
heat transfer coefficient is 40 Wm K .
Õ2 Õ1

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 Worked Examples
Solution: The rate of sensible heat transfer is given by Eq.

For moist air at 30°C and 50% relative humidity we

obtain the following properties from the psychrometric
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chart:
 Worked Examples

For the given conditions the sensible heat flow is from air to water
while the latent heat flow due to evaporation is from water to air.
The net energy flow is from water to air and therefore external
heat has to be supplied to maintain the water at a steady
3rd Faculty Development Workshop 07-18 August , 2006
temperature.
 Worked Examples

For the given conditions the sensible heat flow is from air to water
while the latent heat flow due to evaporation is from water to air.
However, the net energy flow is from air to water and therefore
heat has to be removed to maintain the water at a steady
temperature.
3rd Faculty Development Workshop 07-18 August , 2006
 Worked Examples

3rd Faculty Development Workshop 07-18 August , 2006

 Worked Examples
Example 3: Ambient air at 32°C and 50% relative humidity enters
an air washer at the rate of 2 kgs-1. The humidity ratio of the air at
the exit is 0.0175. The face area of the air washer is 1.1 m2. For
the flow conditions in the air washer, the volumetric mass transfer
coefficient, hd Av = 1.35 kgs-1m-3. The pressure is 101.3 kPa.
Calculate (i) the dry-bulb temperature of the air at the exit, (ii) the
efficiency of the air washer, and (iii) the length of the air washer.

Solution The condition of the air through

an air washer follows the wet-bulb
temperature line through the inlet state.
The important requirement is that the
water in the air washer is
continuously recirculated.
3rd Faculty Development Workshop 07-18 August , 2006
 Worked Examples

3rd Faculty Development Workshop 07-18 August , 2006

 Worked Examples

Example 4: Ambient air at 101.3 kPa, and 38°C enters an air

washer whose face area and length are 3.8 m2 and 1.8 m
respectively. The humidity ratio at entry is 0.0115 and the face
velocity is 1.8 ms-1. The air exits the air washer with a dry-bulb
temperature of 28°C. The temperature of the water in the air
washer is 23°C. Determine (i) the efficiency of the air washer
using the given expressions and (ii) the value of the volumetric
mass transfer coefficient, hd Av.
Efficiency of the air washer:

3rd Faculty Development Workshop 07-18 August , 2006

 Worked Examples

3rd Faculty Development Workshop 07-18 August , 2006

 Worked Examples

3rd Faculty Development Workshop 07-18 August , 2006

 Worked Examples
Example 5 Ambient air at a pressure of 101.3kPa, temperature
30°C and 50% relative humidity enters an air washer with a face
velocity of 1.6 ms-1. The face area and NTU of the air washer are
1.6m2 and 0.6 respectively. The water in the air washer is
continuously recirculated. Calculate
(i) the efficiency of the air washer, (ii) the rate of supply of make-
up water, and (iii) the temperature and relative humidity of the
leaving air.
Solution The states of the air are depicted
in the psychrometric chart in Fig.1.
We locate the state of air at entry from
the given temperature and relative
humidity. The following values are
obtained directly from the psychrometric
chart:
3rd Faculty Development Workshop 07-18 August , 2006
 Worked Examples

3rd Faculty Development Workshop 07-18 August , 2006

 Worked Examples

3rd Faculty Development Workshop 07-18 August , 2006

 Worked Examples
Example 6: The dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures of air at entry
to an air washer are 38°C and 18°C respectively. The mass flow
rate is 1.8 Kgs-1 and the face velocity is 2 ms-1. The volume is 2m3.
The efficiency of the air washer is 70%. Determine (i) the dry bulb
temperature and relative humidity of the leaving air, (ii) the
volumetric mass transfer coefficient, hd Av, (iii) the length of the air
washer, and (iv) the efficiency.

Solution The states of the air are depicted

in the psychrometric chart in Fig. We
locate the state of air at entry from the
given dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures.
The following values are obtained directly
from the psychrometric chart
3rd Faculty Development Workshop 07-18 August , 2006
 Worked Examples

3rd Faculty Development Workshop 07-18 August , 2006

 Worked Examples

3rd Faculty Development Workshop 07-18 August , 2006

 Cooling Towers
A cooling tower, shown
schematically in Fig. is a
direct-contact heat
and mass transfer device
with wide ranging
engineering applications.
The main function of
cooling towers is to
facilitate the rejection of
heat from condensers of
refrigerators and thermal
power plants to the
atmosphere.
3rd Faculty Development Workshop 07-18 August , 2006
 Cooling Towers
In the counter-flow arrangement
depicted in Fig., warm water
entering the cooling tower from the
condenser of a refrigerating system
(chiller plant) at 1 is spayed on to a
packing or fill with the aid of a
series
of nozzles located at the top of the
tower. The packing helps distribute
the water in the form of a thin film.
A fan at the top of the tower draws
ambient air through vents located at
the bottom of the outer wall. The air
moving up through the pores in the
packing exchanges heat and mass
by direct contact with the water film
flowing down.
3rd Faculty Development Workshop 07-18 August , 2006
 Cooling Towers
The water film cools by convective
heat transfer to the air, and by
supplying the latent heat of
vaporization needed to evaporate
the water.
The cold water collecting at the
bottom of the cooling tower is
circulated by a pump to the
condenser. A constant water level is
maintained in the pool at the bottom
by a steady supply of make-up
water. The draft eliminator located
at the top of the tower helps
minimize the carryover of water
drops with the warm air leaving at
the top of the tower.

3rd Faculty Development Workshop 07-18 August , 2006

 Cooling Towers
Example 7: A water-cooled condenser
of a central air conditioning
system rejects heat to the ambient
through a counter-flow cooling tower.
Water enters the cooling tower at 35°C
and leaves at 22°C. The mass
flow rate of water is 19 kgs-1. Ambient
air enters the cooling tower at
20°C and 60% relative humidity. The
air leaves at 30°C and 100%
relative humidity. The temperature of
the make-up water is 25°C. The
pressure is constant at 101.3 kPa.
Calculate (i) the mass flow rate of air,
(ii) the rate of supply of make-up
water, and (iii) the heat rejection rate in
the condenser.
3rd Faculty Development Workshop 07-18 August , 2006
 Cooling Towers
Solution: In this example we consider
the overall performance of a
cooling tower using the control volume
approach. We refer to the
schematic diagram depicted in Fig.
where the various entry and exit
ports are indicated. The following
properties of moist air are obtained
from the psychrometric chart.

3rd Faculty Development Workshop 07-18 August , 2006

 Cooling Towers

3rd Faculty Development Workshop 07-18 August , 2006

 Cooling Towers

3rd Faculty Development Workshop 07-18 August , 2006

 Cooling Towers
Example 8: Ambient air at 20°C db-temperature and
60% relative humidity enters a counter-flow cooling
tower. The air leaves at 30°C and 100% relative
humidity. Water enters the cooling tower at 34°C and
leaves at 21°C. The mass flow rate of water is 18 kgs -1.
The temperature of the make-up water is 24°C. The
pressure is constant at 101.3 kPa. Calculate
(i) the mass flow rate of air, and (ii) the rate of supply of
make-up water.
[Answers: (i) 17.3 kgs-1, (ii) 0.32 kgs-1]

3rd Faculty Development Workshop 07-18 August , 2006

 Cooling Towers
Example 9: A counter-flow cooling tower is used to cool water from
36°C to 28°C. Ambient air enters the cooling tower at 30°C db-
temperature and 23°C wb-temperature. The mass flow rates of
water and air are 19 kgs-1 and 16 kgs-1 respectively. The
volumetric mass transfer coefficient, hdAv = 0.56 kgs-1m-3. The
pressure is constant at 101.3 kPa.
(i) Obtain the condition line for the air.
(ii) Calculate the db-temperature and relative humidity of air at the
exit.
(iii) Calculate the volume of the cooling tower.
Use the detailed model of the cooling tower.
[Answers: (ii) 32.2°C, 98% (iii) 51.9 m3]

3rd Faculty Development Workshop 07-18 August , 2006

 Cooling Towers
Example 10: Water entering a counter-flow cooling tower with a
mass flow rate of 18 kgs-1 is cooled from 36°C to 28°C. The
conditions of the air at entry to the cooling tower are 33°C db-
temperature and 24°C wb-temperature. The mass flow rate of air
is 16 kgs-1. Assume that the volumetric mass transfer coefficient,
hdAv = 0.56 kgs-1m-3. Calculate the volume of the cooling tower
using the simplified model of the cooling tower.
[Answer: 52.4 m3]

3rd Faculty Development Workshop 07-18 August , 2006