EC368 ROBOTICS

1.Introduction- Definition and origin

of robotics
Definition:
The branch of technology that deals with the design,
construction, operation, and application of robots.
-A robot is a type of automated machine that can execute
specific tasks with little or no human intervention and with
speed and precision. 
- Robots are widely used in industries such as automobile
manufacture to perform simple repetitive tasks, and in
industries where work must be performed
in environments hazardous to humans.
- robots may be equipped with the equivalent of human
senses such as vision, touch, and the ability to sense
temperature (artificial intelligence).
-current robotics research is geared toward devising robots
with a degree of self-sufficiency that will permit mobility
and decision-making in an unstructured  environment.
- Robots are very powerful elements of today’s industry.
They are capable of performing many different tasks and
operations, are accurate, and do not require common
safety and comfort elements humans need.
- Robotics and automation can, in many situations,
increase productivity, safety, efficiency, quality, and
consistency of products.
- Robots can work in hazardous environments such as
radiation, darkness, hot and cold, ocean bottoms, space,
and so on without the need for life support, comfort, or
concern for safety.
-Robots need no environmental comfort like lighting, air
conditioning, ventilation, and noise protection.
- Robots work continuously without tiring or fatigue or
boredom. They do not get mad, do not have hangovers,
and need no medical insurance or vacation.
- Robots have repeatable precision at all times unless
something happens to them or unless they wear out.
- Robots can be much more accurate than humans.
- Robots and their accessories and sensors can have
capabilities beyond those of humans.
- Robots replace human workers, causing economic
hardship, worker dissatisfaction and resentment, and the
need for retraining the replaced workforce.
-Robots lack capability to respond in emergencies, unless
the situation is predicted and the response is included in
the system. Safety measures are needed to ensure that
they do not injure operators and other machines that are
working with them. Inappropriate or wrong responses,
Lack of decision-making power,
- Robots are costly
Origin:
Capek dreamed of a scenario where a bioprocess could
create human-like machines, devoid of emotions and
souls, who were strong, obeyed their masters, and could
be produced quickly and cheaply.
-After World War II, automatic machines were designed to
increase productivity, and machine-tool manufacturers
made numerically controlled (NC) machines to enable
manufacturers to produce better products.
- At the same time, multi-degree-of-freedom manipulators
were developed for work on nuclear materials.
- Integration between the NC capability of machine tools
and the manipulators created a simple robot.
-The first robots were controlled by strips of paper with
holes, which electric eyes could detect and which
controlled the robot’s movements.
- As industry improved, the strip of paper gave way to
magnetic tapes, to memory devices, and personal
computers.
-1922 Czech author Karel Capek wrote a story called
Rossum’s Universal Robots and introduced the word rabota
(worker).
- 1946 George Devol developed the magnetic controller, a
playback device. Eckert and Mauchley built the ENIAC
computer at the University of Pennsylvania.
- 1952 The first numerically controlled machine was built at
MIT.
-1954 George Devol developed the first programmable
robot.
- 1955 Denavit and Hartenberg developed homogeneous
transformation matrices.
- 1961 U.S. patent 2,988,237 was issued to George Devol
for ‘‘Programmed Article Transfer,’’ a basis for UnimateTM
robots.
- 1962 UnimationTM was formed, the first industrial robots
appeared, and GM installed its first robot from
UnimationTM.
- 1967 UnimateTM introduced MarkIITM robot. The first
robot was imported to Japan for paint spraying
applications.
-1968 An intelligent robot called Shakey was built at the
Stanford Research Institute (SRI).
- 1972 IBM worked on a rectangular coordinate robot for
internal use. It eventually developed the IBM 7565 for sale.
- 1973 Cincinnati MilacronTM introduced T3 model robot
which became very popular in industry.
- 1978 The first PUMA robot was shipped to GM by
UnimationTM.
- 1982 GM and Fanuc of Japan signed an agreement to
build GMFanuc robots.
- 1983 Robotics became a very popular subject, both in
industry as well as academia. Many programs in the nation
started teaching robotic courses.
-1983 UnimationTM was sold to Westinghouse
Corporation, who subsequently sold it to the Staubli of
Switzerland in 1988.
- 1986 Honda introduced its first humanoid robot called H0.
First Asimo was introduced in 2000.
- 2005 Between January and March, over 5,300 robots
were ordered by the North American manufacturing
companies at a value of $302 million.
Robot Anatomy:
Manipulator or the rover: This is the main body of the
robot which consists of the links, the joints, and other
structural elements of the robot. Without other elements,
the manipulator alone is not a robot
End effector: This part is connected to the last joint (hand)
of a manipulator that generally handles objects, makes
connections to other machines, or performs the required
tasks . Robot manufacturers generally do not design or sell
end effectors. In most cases, all they supply is a simple
gripper. Generally, the hand of a robot has provisions for
connecting specialty end effectors specifically designed for
a purpose. This is the job of a company’s engineers or
outside consultants to design and install the end effector
on the robot, and to make it work for the given situation. A
welding torch, a paint spray gun, a glue laying device, or a
parts handler are but a few possibilities. In most cases, the
action of the end effector is either controlled by the robot’s
controller, or the controller communicates with the end
effector’s controlling device (such as a PLC).
Actuators: Actuators are the ‘‘muscles’’ of the
manipulators. The controller sends signals to the actuators,
which, in turn, move the robot joints and links. Common
types are servomotors, stepper motors, pneumatic
actuators, and hydraulic actuators.
Sensors: Sensors are used to collect information about the
internal state of the robot or to communicate with the
outside environment. As in humans, the robot controller
needs to know the location of each link of the robot in
order to know the robot’s configuration. When you wake
up in the morning, even without opening your eyes, or
when it is completely dark, you still know where your arms
and legs are. This is because feedback sensors in your
central nervous system embedded in muscle tendons send
information to the brain.
The brain uses this information to determine the length of
your muscles and, consequently, the state of your arms,
legs, and so on. The same is true for robots, where sensors
integrated into the robot send information about each joint
or link to the controller that determines the configuration
of the robot. Still similar to your major senses of sight,
touch, hearing, taste, and speech, robots are equipped with
external sensory devices such as a vision system, touch and
tactile sensors, speech synthesizer, and the like that enable
the robot to communicate with the outside world.
Controller: The controller is rather similar to your
cerebellum; although it does not have the power of the
brain, it still controls your motions.
The controller receives its data from the computer (the
brain of the system), controls the motions of the actuators,
and coordinates the motions with the sensory feedback
information. Suppose that in order for the robot to pick up
a part from a bin, it is necessary that its first joint be at
350o If the joint is not already at this magnitude, the
controller will send a signal to the actuator—a current to
an electric motor, air to a pneumatic cylinder, or a signal to
a hydraulic servo valve— causing it to move. It will then
measure the change in the joint angle through the
feedback sensor attached to the joint (a potentiometer, an
encoder, etc.). When the joint reaches the desired value,
the signal is stopped.
Processor: The processor is the brain of the robot. It
calculates the motions of the robot’s joints, determines
how much and how fast each joint must move to achieve
the desired location and speeds, and oversees the
coordinated actions of the controller and the sensors. The
processor is generally a computer, which works like all
other computers, but is dedicated to this purpose. It
requires an operating system, programs, peripheral
equipment like a monitor, and has the same limitations
and capabilities. In some systems, the controller and the
processor are integrated together into one unit.
Software: Three groups of software programs are used in a
robot. One is the operating system that operates the
processor. The second is the robotic software that
calculates the necessary motions of each joint based on
the kinematic equations of the robot. This information is
sent to the controller. This software may be at many
different levels, from machine language to sophisticated
languages used by modern robots. The third group is the
collection of application-oriented routines and programs
developed to use the robot or its peripherals for specific
tasks such as assembly, machine loading, material
handling, and vision routines.
Robot Specifications:
Axes - The individual segments of each robot manipulator
are connected with mechanical joints - each serves as an
axis of movement. The most common industrial robots
have six axes of movement. The number and placement of
axes determines the flexibility of each model. 
Robot Motion Range - Much like the joints between bones,
robot axes have limits to each movement. Every axis has a
specific scope of motion. On a typical specifications sheet,
the degree of movement shows up as positive or negative
degree of movement from the center base position of each
axis. 
Robot Motion Speed - Each axis moves at a different speed.
They are listed as degrees traveled per second. Focus on
this criterion when you need to match certain speed
specifications for your application. 
Repeatability - Industrial robots are known for their
accuracy. But this ability to return to an exact location again
and again, known as a robot's repeatability, can vary with
each model. More precision-driven applications will require
tighter repeatability figures. Repeatability is listed as a
millimeter of alteration plus or minus from the point.
Payload - The weight capacity of each robot manipulator is
its payload. This is a critical specification and includes the
tooling weight as well. You can rule out a number of robots
with this robot specification category alone. 
Robot Mass - Every robot has a specific weight or mass.
This number only indicates how much the robot
manipulator weighs. It does not include the weight of the
robot's controller. This specification may not be quite as
important unless you are trying to install your robot on a
table or shelf.
Vertical Reach - How high can the robot go? A robot's
vertical reach specification refers to the height of the robot
when it extends upwards from the base. Use this to
determine whether or not a model is tall enough for your
application and location.
 
Horizontal Reach - How far can a robot reach? The
horizontal reach measures the distance of the fully
extended arm - from the base to the wrist. Some
applications will require a wider work envelope with a big
reach, others are satisfied with a contained, short
horizontal reach. 
Structure - Robots are engineered with different
structures. The most common by far is the vertical
articulated type, sometimes called a vertical jointed-arm
robot. Other structure types include SCARA, Cartesian, and
parallel kinematic robots.