Composites

and
their processing (manufacturing) techniques

Dr. Sunny Zafar

Assistant Professor
School of Engineering
1
 Composites
 A composite material is made by combining two or more materials to give a
unique combination of properties.
 The above definition is more general and can include metals alloys, plastic co-
polymers, minerals, and wood.
 Composite material systems result in a performance unattainable by the
individual constituents, and they offer the great advantage of a flexible design.
 One can, in principle, tailor-make the material as per specifications of an
optimum design.

Fig: Some naturally occurring composites

2
 What is a composite?
 The term composite materials refers to all solid materials composed of more
than one component wherein those components are in separate phases.
 This definition includes a wide assortment of materials, such as:
 Fiber reinforced plastics
 Regular and steel reinforced concrete
 Particle filled plastics
 Rubber reinforced plastics
 Wood laminates
 Ceramic mixtures
 Some alloys
 Composite materials are those solid materials composed of a binder or matrix
that surrounds and holds in place reinforcements.

3
Why composites?

4
Man made composites

Fig: Some man

made composites

5
 Advantages of Composite Materials?
 Light weight
 High specific stiffness and strength
 Tailored Properties (anisotropy)
 Easily moldable (complex net shapes)
 Easily bondable
 Good fatigue resistance
 Good damping resistance
 Low coefficient of thermal expansion
 Low radar visibility

6
 Limitations of Composite Materials?
 High cost of raw material
 Lack of proven design rules
 Metal and composites materials are seldom interchangeable
 Long development times and manufacturing difficulty
 Low ductility
 Moisture attacks
 Temperature limits

7
 Classification of composites
Composites

Particulate Fiber

Random Particulate Single layer Multi layer

orientation

Long and Short and Laminate Hybrid

continuous fibers discontinuous fibers laminate

Unidirectional Bi-directional

Random Preferred
orientation orientation 8
 Fibers vs Bulk
Table: Comparison of fibre properties and bulk properties

9
Building blocks of FRC

10
 Fibers
 Fibers are the principal constituents in a fiber-reinforced composite material.
 They occupy the largest volume fraction in a composite laminate and share the
major portion of the load acting on a composite structure.
 Proper selection of the fiber type, fiber volume fraction, fiber length, and fiber
orientation is very important.
 Following characteristics of a fibers are of interest for composite laminates:
1. Density
2. Tensile strength and modulus
3. Compressive strength and modulus
4. Fatigue strength as well as fatigue failure mechanisms
5. Electrical and thermal conductivities
6. Cost

11
 Fibers
Table: Some commercially available fibres

Fibre Density Tensile strength Young’s modulus Elongation

(g/cc) (MPa) (GPa) at failure
(%)

Flax 1.45 500-900 50-70 1.5-4.0

Hemp 1.48 350-800 30-60 1.6-4.0
Jute 1.3 300-700 20-50 1.2-3.0
Bamboo 1.4 500-740 30-50 2
S-glass 2.5 4585 83 5.7
E-glass 2.5 1200-1800 72 2.5
Carbon 1.4 ~4000 235 2
Kevlar 1.44 3600-4000 130 2.8
Aramid 1.4 3400-3600 83-186 2.0-4.0
Boron (on W) 2.5 3447 386 0.9
Steel 7.8 1000 200 30
Aluminium 2.8 483 70 20
Titanium 4.5 1145 172 30
Magnesium 1.8 276 48 15
12
 Fibers vs Matrix vs Composite

Fig: Stress–strain curves of the kenaf sheet, the PLLA film and the kenaf/PLLA composite with the fiber
content of 70 vol%. 13
Fibers

14
Fibers

15
 Glass Fibers
Manufacturing Process
 The raw materials used for making are silica sand, limestone, fluorspar, boric
acid, and clay. Silica accounts for more than 50% of the total ingredients.
 By varying the amounts of raw materials and the processing parameters, other
glass types are produced.
 The raw materials are mixed thoroughly and melted in a furnace at 2,500 to
3,000 °F.
 The melt flows into one or more bushings containing hundreds of small orifices.
The glass filaments are formed as the molten glass passes through these
orifices and successively goes through a quench area where water and/or air
quickly cool the filaments below the glass transition temperature.
 The filaments are then pulled over a roller at a speed around 50 miles per hour.
The roller coats them with sizing.
 The amount of sizing used ranges from 0.25 to 6% of the original fiber weight.
All the filaments are then pulled into a single strand and wound onto a tube.

16
 Glass Fibers

Table: Approximate chemical compositions of some glass fibers (wt.%)

17
 Glass Fibers

18
Fig: Schematic representation of marble melt process for production of continuous filament fiberglass
 Glass Fibers

Fig: Glass fiber is available in a variety of forms: (a) chopped strand, (b) continuous yarn, 19
(c) roving, (d) fabric [courtesy of Morrison Molded Fiber Glass Company]
 Glass Fibers
Applications
 Boat hulls
 Light rail cars
 Building roof structures, housings and cabinets for appliances
 Tub and shower units,
 Wall and bathroom panels,
 Automobile bodies
 Ducts for the air conditioning and heating
 Vaulting poles, bows and arrows, surfboards, snowboards, and skateboards.
 Snowmobile housings are usually FRP

20
 Carbon Fibers

 The demand for reinforcement fibers with strength and stiffness higher than
those of glass fibers has led to the development of carbon or graphite fibers.
 The mechanical properties of carbon fibers have steadily increased through
improvements in starting materials and manufacturing methods.
 Today, carbon fiber has among the highest specific strength and highest specific
modulus of any material.

Fig: Woven carbon fiber (Source: https://system.eu2.netsuite.com/core/media/media.nl?id=4687&c=3937524&h=77cae10da5ae902f62fb)

21
 Carbon Fibers
Manufacturing Process
 The raw materials used for making carbon fibers are polyacrylonitrile (PAN) or
pitch.
 All of these materials have high carbon concentrations relative to other atoms
and all can be converted into a graphite material.
 PAN-based fibers have good properties with relatively low costs for standard
modulus products.
 Pitch-based fibers have high modulus and good thermal conductivity.
 Stabilization step(oxidation step) involves stretching of the fibers, they become
stabilized. This is done with moderate heat and in an air atmosphere.

These rings are

crucial for
formation of
graphite

Fig: Structural changes of PAN-based carbon fiber during the stabilization step of the manufacturing process

22
 Carbon Fibers
Manufacturing Process
 Carbonization (This step is sometimes also called pyrolization): during this step
the fibers are heated to higher temperatures in a nitrogen atmosphere and the
tension on the fibers is maintained. Hydrogen molecules attached to the
interconnected rings are removed by the heat and the chains of rings merge
together to form plates.

Fig: Structural changes of PAN-based carbon fiber during the carbonization step of the manufacturing
process.

 Because of material loss, fiber diameter reduces to half of its original diameter.

23
 Carbon Fibers
Manufacturing Process
 Graphitization. In this step, the nitrogen atoms present in the rings are
eliminated and the ring structure is further consolidated.
 The carbon content of the fibers after graphitization is generally above 99%. The
differences in modulus and strength of the fibers are largely dictated by the
conditions present during graphitization.
 Higher-modulus fibers are processed at higher temperatures and for longer
times

Fig: Structural changes of PAN-based carbon fiber during the graphitization step of the manufacturing
process.
24
 Carbon Fibers
Manufacturing Process
 The fibers are cleaned in an electrolytic bath. This bath removes debris that
might have been formed during the heating processes and oxidizes the surface
of the fibers.

Fig: Manufacturing process for making carbon

fibers.
 Sometimes, hydroxyl groups are added on the surface to improve the bonding
on the surface of the carbon fiber.
 Whiskerization or vapour-phase deposition of pyrolitic carbon on the fiber
surface is also done to improve bonding with matrix. But these are generally
expensive are successful on laboratory scale.

25
 Carbon Fibers
Structure

Fig: Three-dimensional representation of the carbon fiber structure. 26

 Carbon Fibers
Properties
 C/F have high strength, high stiffness, high toughness, and low weight.
 C/F have a negative CTE indicating that as the temperature goes up, the
sample gets smaller.
 C/F have one of the highest thermal conductivities, even surpassing that of most
metals.
 These fibers can be used as radiators (heat pipes) to transmit heat away from the heat source.
 Carbon fibers are elastic to failure at normal temperatures (meaning that they do
not deform before failure), which renders them creep resistant and not
susceptible to fatigue.
 They are chemically inert except in strongly oxidizing environments or when in
contact with certain molten metals.
 C/F have excellent damping characteristics as well

27
 Carbon Fibers
Applications
Representative applications based upon strength, stiffness, and low weight
include the following:
 Aircraft control surfaces and, increasingly, full fuselages;
 Helicopter rotor blades and wind turbine blades;
 Aircraft structural parts such as door and landing gear assemblies;
 Automotive drive shafts and leaf springs;
 Racing car bodies and frames;
 Spacecraft, rockets, and missiles; and
 High-precision tooling

28
 Carbon Fibers
Applications
These applications are based on thermal properties:
 Heat shields for missiles and rockets; brakes
 Aerospace antennas (because of the low coefficient of thermal expansion)
 Space structures such as telescope mounts
 Housings for computers, small motors and electrical control panels.

The following applications are based on chemical inertness:

 Storage tanks (especially when weight a consideration such as the waste tanks
on airplanes)
 Ridge structures (which will not corrode and have good seismic resistance)
 Uranium enrichment centrifuge in the nuclear industry

Applications based upon fatigue resistance and self-lubrication:

 Textile machine components
 Air-slide valves
 Compressor blades
 Artificial limbs
29
 Aramid Fibers
 Aramid fiber is a generic term for a class of synthetic organic fibers called
aromatic polyamide fibers.
 Well-known commercial names of aramid fibers include Kevlar and Nomex (Du
Pont) and Twaron (Teijin Aramid).
 Kevlar has para-oriented aromatic rings, i.e., its basic unit is a symmetric
molecule, with bonds from each aromatic ring being parallel, while Nomex is
meta-oriented, with bonds at 120-degree angles to each other.
 They are widely used for ballistic protection and then as a reinforcement for
high-performance composites.
 The fibers have also found applications in high-strength cloth, such as that used
for sails on racing boats and protective clothing and gloves

30
Fig: Woven Kevlar fiber (Source: https://system.eu2.netsuite.com/core/media/media.nl?id=4687&c=3937524&h=77cae10da5ae902f62fb)
 Aramid Fibers
Manufacturing Process
 The raw materials used for making aramid fibers are para-phenylenediamine
and terephthaloychloride.

Because high aromaticity, and

intermolecular
bonding, the polymer is difficult to dissolve

Fig: Synthesis of aramid and its intermolecular bonding

31
 Aramid Fibers
Manufacturing Process
 The solution is then forced though a plate (spinneret) into which many small
holes have been drilled.
 The material emerges as continuous fibers.
 The fibers are then washed, collected, dried, and wound onto spools.
 As indicated by the inherent rod-like nature and high crystallinity of the fibers,
the molecules are already aligned in the long direction as they are formed.

32
Fig: Manufacturing process for aramid fibers.
 Aramid Fibers
Properties
 Aramid fibers are less dense than fiberglass and carbon fibers, and intermediate
in strength fibers and stiffness between glass and carbon fibers.
 As indicated by the inherent rod-like nature and high crystallinity of the fibers,
the molecules are already aligned in the long direction as they are formed.
 During failure (tension), the fibers break into small fibrils, which are like fibers
within the fiber.
 Similar to failure of cable and solid rod.
 But these have poor compression resistance, rarely used in those applications
 The thermoplastic nature of aramids means that the fibers are sensitive to heat
and sunlight (UV light).
 Excellent resistance to chemicals (retention of tensile strength).

33
 Aramid Fibers
Properties

Fig: Impact toughness of aramid and carbon fiber composite pressure bottles.

34
 Aramid Fibers
Applications
Advantage are because of combination of light weight, strength, modulus, and
especially toughness.
 Ballistic protection- body armor like bullet proof vests.
 Armor for ships and motorized combat vehicles such as tanks and personnel
carriers.
 Battlefield shelters
 Leading edges of aircraft wings and other structures where impact damage
might be expected
 High-performance pressure vessels (high hoop stress and control of impact
damage)

35
 UHMWPE Fibers
 Ultra-high-molecular-weight Polyethylene (UHMWPE) Fiber
 Traditional polyethylene is not, however, used as a textile fiber because of
durability (cracking) problems.
 UHMWPE fibers have molecular weights that are orders of magnitude higher
than traditional polyethylenes.

Fig: UHMWPE fiber (Source: https://system.eu2.netsuite.com/core/media/media.nl?id=4687&c=3937524&h=77cae10da5ae902f62fb)

36
 UHMWPE Fibers
Manufacturing Process
 The techniques for polymerizing UHMWPE have been known for many years.
 Manufacturing process stretching of the fiber molecules in the fiber direction so
that the normal folding of the polyethylene molecules does not occur
 Extending the molecules creates rod-like structures.
 These rods have a high degree of molecular orientation (95–99%) and high
crystallinity (60–85%)

Raw
Solvent removed,
material: Powder dissolved in Solution forced
fibers dried and
UHMWPE a solvent. through spinneret
are drawn
powder
So that the normally The molecules
intertwined are aligned as they
molecules are free to pass through the
move completely spinneret
independent of other holes.
molecular chains.

37
Fig: Manufacturing process for UHMEPE fibers.
 UHMWPE Fibers
Manufacturing Process

Fig: Manufacturing process for UHMEPE fibers using Gel spinning process.

38
 UHMWPE Fibers
Properties
 High strength, toughness and stiffness, but less than glass and aramid fibers).
 But UHMWPE has major advantage—it weighs less for the same level of
protection as Aramid fibers.
 Poor bonding, but it may actually improve impact resistance. This is because
slippage along the matrix-fiber bonds uses energy and therefore improves
impact strength.
 The resistance to solvents and most acids (even better than aramid).
 UHMWPE fibers are prone to higher creep (extension at load less the break
load at elevated temperature).
 Therefore, not used in structural applications

39
 UHMWPE Fibers
Applications
 UHMWPE fibers are used for sailcloth and other fabrics and applications, like
ropes, where toughness and possibly light weight are important.
 Protective clothing, for example protective gloves.
 Light weight and excellent bullet-stopping capability give these fibers a strong
position in the ballistic protection market.

40
 Boron and SiC Fibers
 Boron and silicon carbide (SiC) are high modulus reinforcements.
 Total production volume of these materials is small compared to other fibers.
 Boron and SiC excellent properties suited to some specialized and important
applications.

W filament

Boron
deposits

Fig: Boron fiber

41
 Boron and SiC Fibers
Manufacturing Process
 Both boron and SiC fibers are made by the chemical vapor deposition (CVD)
process.
 Filament: W  for B fibers; C for SiC fibers

To remove
any lubricants or other
surface contaminants

Deposition gas
1. For B fibers, BCl3 and H2
2. For SiC fibers, SiH4
Chamber (Silane) and H2

For resistance heating of the

substrate filament

42
Fig: Manufacturing process for UHMEPE fibers.
 Boron and SiC Fibers
Manufacturing Process
 The time required to make the vapor-deposited fibers is usually long because
there needs to be time for the deposition buildup to occur.
 Typical reaction time inside the deposition chamber is generally from 30
seconds to a few minutes.
 CVD process conditions for making boron fibers can be modified to improve
temperature resistance, tensile strengths (by eliminating defects), and wettability
by a metal matrix.
 A minor change in the gas flows inside the chamber when making SiC fibers
creates a different SiC crystalline structure on the outside of the fiber.
 This change improves the adhesion of the SiC fibers to metal matrices

43
 Boron and SiC Fibers
Applications of Boron Fibers
 Boron fibers are unique among the high performance fibers because they
combine the usual good tensile properties with good compressive properties.
 The typical compressive strength for boron fibers is 1,000 ksi (6,895 MPa).
 Boron fibers are sold as prepreg tapes with epoxy as the matrix. These prepregs
have been used to make the aerospace products.
 Sports and recreation products such as rackets for tennis, racquetball, squash,
and badminton; fishing rods; skis; and golf club shafts.
 One principal application for boron fibers in an aluminum matrix is as tubular
struts in the frame and rib truss members and frame stabilizing members in the
space shuttle.

44
 Boron and SiC Fibers
Applications of SiC Fibers
 Silicon carbide fibers are often sold as reinforcements for metals and ceramics.
 Some applications for SiC fibers in an aluminum matrix include aircraft wing
structural elements, elements for movable military bridges, and missile body
casings.
 SiC fibers have been placed in a titanium matrix for drive shafts to give
increased stiffness over other candidate materials.
 Fan blades also have been made of titanium with SiC reinforcement.
 Ceramic armor reinforced with SiC fibers has become a major product and has
a bright future.

45
 Natural Fibers
Why we need natural fibers?
 Environmental reasons
 Renewable resources
 Thermally recyclable, biodegradable, CO2 neutral
 Low energy consumption (which means low CO2 and low “carbon footprint”)
 Cost: potentially low cost
 Health and safety: less abrasive and safe to handle
 Good specific mechanical and tribological properties
 Natural image, design aspects
 Light weight structures with high modulus values
 Low coefficient of thermal expansion
 Good acoustic and vibration damping capacity
 Increased recycling possibilities  better energy recovery
 Less environmental impact due to material production.

46
 Natural Fibers
Some data on energy utilisation for fibre production:
• Lignocellulosic fibres 4-15 MJ/kg
• Natural fibre mat 9.7 MJ/kg
• Glass fibre 30-50 MJ/kg
• Glass fibre mat 55 MJ/kg
• Carbon fibre 130 MJ/kg

Fig: Application of natural fibers in the automotive industry

47
 Natural Fibers
Types of Natural Fibers
Natural fibers

Plant Animal Mineral

Seed Fruit Stem Leaf Wood Stalk Grass Hair Silk

(or bast) fibers

Lamb’s wool Tussah silk Asbestos

Cotton Coir Flax Pineapple Hard Wheat Bamboo
Goat hair Mulberry silk Fibrous brucite
Kapok Hemp Abaca Soft Maize Bagasse
Angoral wool Wollastonite
Milkweed Jute Henequen (flour) Barley Esparto
Ramie Sisal Rye Sabei Cashmere
Kenaf Oat Phragmites Yak
Rice Communis Horse hair

48
Ref: Akil, H., Omar, M.F., Mazuki, A.A.M., Safiee, S.Z.A.M., Ishak, Z.M. and Bakar, A.A., 2011. Kenaf fiber reinforced composites: A review. Materials & Design, 32(8), pp.4107-4121.
 Natural Fibers
Production of Natural Fibers

Fig: Schematic representation of natural fiber production

49
Ref: Akil, H., Omar, M.F., Mazuki, A.A.M., Safiee, S.Z.A.M., Ishak, Z.M. and Bakar, A.A., 2011. Kenaf fiber reinforced composites: A review. Materials & Design, 32(8), pp.4107-4121.
 Matrices
Introduction
 Matrix surrounds the fibers and thus protects those fibers against chemical and
environmental attack. For fibers to carry maximum load, the matrix must have a
lower modulus and greater elongation than the reinforcement.
 Matrix selection is performed based on chemical, thermal, electrical,
flammability, environmental, cost, performance, and manufacturing
requirements.
 The matrix determines the service operating temperature of a composite as well
as processing parameters for part manufacturing.
 Types of matrix materials
 Polymers (both thermosets and thermoplastics)
 Metals
 Ceramics

50
 Matrices
Classification
Matrices

Polymer Metal Ceramic

Thermosets Thermoplastics

Epoxies Nylons
Aluminium and its alloys, Aluminium oxide (Al2O3)
Polyesters Thermoplastic polyesters (such as
Titanium alloys, Carbon
Vinyl esters PET, PBT),
Magnesium alloys, Silicon Carbide (SiC),
Phenolics Polycarbonate (PC)
Copper-based alloys, Silicon Nitride (Si3N4)
Polyimides Polyacetals (PA)
Nickel-based superalloys,
Polybenzimidazoles (PBI), Polyethylene (PE)
Stainless Steels
polyphenylquinoxaline (PPQ) Poly proplyne (PP)
Cyanate ester Polyamide-imide (PAI),
Polyether ether ketone (PEEK)
Polysulfone (PSUL)
Polyphenylene sulfide (PPS)
Polyetherimide (PEI)

51
 Matrices
Polymer matrices
 A polymer is defined as a long-chain molecule containing one or more repeating
units of atoms joined together by strong covalent bonds.
 A polymeric material (commonly called a plastic) is a collection of a large
number of polymer molecules of similar chemical structure (but not of equal
length).

Fig: Examples of repeating units in polymer molecules. (a) A polypropylene molecule. (b) A nylon 6,6
molecule.

52
 Matrices
Polymer matrices
 In the solid state, these molecules are frozen in space, either in a random
fashion in amorphous polymers or in a mixture of random fashion.

Fig: Arrangement of molecules in (a) amorphous polymers and (b) semi crystalline polymers.

53
 Matrices
Thermoplastics and thermosets matrices
 Polymers are divided into two broad categories: thermoplastics and thermosets.
 In a thermoplastic polymer, individual molecules are not chemically joined
together.
 They are held in place by weak secondary bonds or intermolecular forces, such
as van der Waals bonds and hydrogen bonds.
 With the application of heat, these secondary bonds in a solid thermoplastic
polymer can be temporarily broken and the molecules can now be moved
relative to each other or flow to a new configuration if pressure is applied on
them.
 On cooling, the molecules can be frozen in their new configuration and the
secondary bonds are restored, resulting in a new solid shape. Thus, a
thermoplastic polymer can be heat-softened, melted, and reshaped (or post
formed) as many times as desired.
 In a thermoset polymer, on the other hand, the molecules are chemically joined
together by cross-links, forming a rigid, three-dimensional network structure.
Once these cross-links are formed during the polymerization reaction (also
called the curing reaction), the thermoset polymer cannot be melted by the
application of heat.

54
 Matrices
Thermoplastics and thermosets matrices

Fig: Schematic representation of (a) thermoplastic polymer and (b) thermoset polymer.

55
 Polymer Matrices
Unique characteristics
 Mechanical properties depend strongly on both the ambient temperature and the
loading rate.
 Glass transition temperature (Tg) is the temperature in which the polymer
changes from a hard, sometimes brittle (glass-like) material to a soft, tough
(leather like) material.
 Over a temperature range around Tg, its modulus is reduced by as much as five
orders of magnitude.
 Near this temperature, the material is also highly viscoelastic.
 The mechanical characteristics of a polymeric solid depend on the ambient
temperature relative to the glass transition temperature of the polymer.
 If the ambient temperature is above Tg, the polymeric solid exhibits low surface
hardness, low modulus, and high ductility.

56
 Polymer Matrices
Unique characteristics

At low loading rates or long durations of

loading, the polymer may behave in a ductile
manner and show high toughness.

At high loading rates or short durations of

loading, the same polymer behaves in a rigid,
brittle (glass-like) manner.

Fig: Effects of loading rate and temperature on the stress–strain behavior of polymers.
57
 Prepregs
Introduction
 A prepreg (pre-impregnated) is a resin-impregnated fiber, fabric, or mat in flat
form, which is stored for later use in hand lay-up or molding operations.
 Fibers laid at 0° orientation and preimpregnated with resin are called
unidirectional tape.
 Various types of prepregs available as unidirectional tape, woven fabric tape,
and roving.
 Unidirectional tape provides the ability to tailor the composite properties in the
desired direction. Woven fabric prepregs are used to make highly contoured
parts in which material flexibility is key.
 It is also used to make sandwich panels using honeycomb as a core material.
Preimpregnated roving are primarily used in filament winding applications

Matrix

Fiber mat
Fig: Carbon fiber-epoxy prepreg (Source: http://cdn.fibreglast.com/images/LC_Prepreg.jpg) 58
 Prepregs
Manufacturing

Heating is done only till stage B

Solution will contain solvent and

epoxy. Solvent will control the
Fig: Schematic of prepreg manufacturing. viscosity of the resin solution

59
 Prepregs
Properties of Prepregs

60
 Prepregs
Applications
 Prepregs are being increasingly used in high performance applications in the
composites industry and also in other sectors. Some key areas where prepregs
currently find use are listed below:
 Aircraft interiors, aerospace components, aircraft flooring, cargo liners
 Automotive parts and components, tooling, ballistic panels
 A/C ducting, electronic-transmission applications
 UV resistant parts, sporting goods, high temperature parts
 Honeycomb and foam panels, flame retardant laminates,
 Carbon-carbon composites, high-rise flooring, high impact surfaces,
 UAVs, seatbacks, doubles

61
 Preforms
Introduction
 Preforms are feedstock for the RTM and SRIM processes, where a
reinforcement in the form of a thick two- or three-dimensional fiber architecture
is put in the mold cavity and then resin is injected into the cavity to obtain the
composite part. Preforms are made in several ways.
 To make a preform by braiding and filament winding, dry fibers are laid over a
mandrel.
 Preforms can be of any shape, depending on the requirements and size of the
component.
 Preforms are stable and offer a good strength-to-weight ratio.

62
 Preforms
Manufacturing

Fig: Schematic of short fiber preform fabrication.

63
 Honeycomb Materials
Introduction
 These materials are generally used for sandwich structures as cores between
two thin high-strength facings.
 These materials are joined with facings using an adhesive strong enough to
transfer the loads from one face to another.
 The honeycomb material acts like a web of I-beams, taking the shear loads as
well as providing structural rigidity by keeping high-strength materials away from
the neutral axis where tensile and compressive stresses are high.
 The difference between sandwich structure and I-beam is that in sandwich
structure, the web is spread over the entire cross section, providing high
torsional rigidity; whereas in I-beam, the web is only in the middle, thus
providing less torsional rigidity.
 The sandwich construction provides the highest stiffness-to-weight ratio and
strength-to-weight ratio.

64
 Honeycomb Materials
Introduction

Fig: Honeycomb structures Fig: Honeycomb crash absorption structure

made of injection moulded thermoplastic
polymer on a BMW i3

65
 Honeycomb Materials
Manufacturing
 Honeycomb materials are made:
 Aluminum
 Nomex (Nylon with aromatic backbone)
 Polycarbonate
 Polypropylene
 Wood (Bast)
 Expansion
 Used for making aluminum and Nomex honeycombs.
 In the expansion process, sheets of material are stacked together in a block form.
 Before stacking adhesive node lines are printed on the sheets to obtain interrupted adhesive
bonding.
 The stack of sheets is then cured. Slices of appropriate thickness are cut from the block and then
expanded to obtain the desired cell size and shape.
 Corrugation.
 In the corrugation method, the sheet of material is transformed into corrugation form using
corrugating rolls.
 The corrugated sheets are stacked together, bonded, and cured.
 Honeycomb panels are cut from the block into the desired shape and size without any expansion.

66
 Honeycomb Materials
Applications
 Honeycomb materials are used in aircraft, transportation, marine,
communication, sporting goods, and many other industries.
 Honeycomb materials provide predictable crash behavior and are used for the
design of crash resistant parts.
 These materials are used for the design of computer and communications
rooms because of their radiation shielding characteristics.
 The repetitive cellular structure acts as a myriad of waveguides, attenuating
signals across a wide frequency range..

67
 Additives
Introduction and Application
 Additives are the materials added to the basic composite materials (resin
system and reinforcements) to improve some specific property.
 Most additives are present in only small concentrations; although one, fillers,
can be a major component of the mixture.
 Additives include flame-retardant materials, such as halogen-containing resins
or special fillers, electrical property enhancers, UV, inhibitors, and tougheners.

68
 Fillers
Introduction and Application
 Fillers are solid materials ground to fine powders and added to the resin mix to
reduce overall cost and, occasionally, to impart some other beneficial property.
 The most common fillers are common minerals, such as limestone and talc,
which have been purified and ground.
 Fillers usually have no particular length-to-width ratio and are not, therefore,
fibers, but are, instead, particles.
 Fillers usually cost much less than the resin and therefore any combination of
the resin and filler will be less costly in terms of total weight or total volume than
the pure resin itself.
 Cost reduction is usually the most important reason to use fillers in composite
materials.
 The effect on mechanical properties of adding reasonably low concentrations of
fillers to the resin mixture is generally not large, especially in the presence of
fiber reinforcements; although some increased stiffness or reduced strength and
reduced elongation is common.
 Fillers can also impart some special benefits such as fire retardation, color, or
dimensional control (called low profile and discussed in the section on molding
compounds in the polyester chapter).
69
 Pigments and Dyes
Introduction and Application
 The color of a composite is affected by the way light is absorbed or diffracted by
either the polymer, fibers, or additives in the material.
 Additives that cause specific light to be absorbed are called colorants.
 The colorants can be organic, based on carbon containing molecules, in which
case they are also known as dyes.
 Alternately, the materials can be ground, inorganic powders called pigments.
Dyes and pigments are available in a wide range of colors and shades.
 Generally, dyes are more subtle in color than pigments but pigments are more
intense (vibrant).
 Pigments are also more stable at high temperatures.

70
 Viscosity Control Agents
Introduction and Application
 Viscosity control is important for the proper molding of resin mixtures to make
composite parts.
 For instance, if the viscosity is too low, the material might run down the side of
the mold or drip off the fibers.
 Fillers might be added to thicken the mixture; but sometimes they cannot be
used or, alternately, even with fillers the material is still too thin.
 In these cases, a thixotrope can be used to significantly increase the viscosity of
the mixture with the addition of only a small amount.
 A common material of this type is fumed silica, which can give a significant
increase in viscosity either by itself or with the addition of special thixotrope
enhancers.
 This is accomplished because there is some secondary bonding induced
between the polymer chains.
 These secondary bonds will decompose with heat and are therefore not
important in the final product, but during processing they add considerable
viscosity to the resin mixture.

71
 Surface Agents
Introduction and Application
 Surface energy and charge is the tendency of some surfaces to not be wetted
by the resin mixture.
 Often, this problem can be solved by adding a surfactant to the resin mixture.
 The surfactant changes the charge or energy of the surface to be coated and
facilitates wetting by the resin.
 Surfaces that might have this problem include molds and fibers

72
 Anti-foaming Agents
Introduction and Application
 Some resins have a tendency to foam, thus complicating their application
especially with spraying.
 Hence, additives are available that reduce the tendency of materials to foam.
 These additives usually work by changing the charge or the energy on the
surface of the resin or filler particles in the mixture.
 Silicones are materials that can serve as anti-foaming agents of this type.

73
 Manufacturing Techniques
Feedstock of Composites

Thermosets Thermoplastics

Fibers and Prepreg SMC/TMC/ Fibers and Thermo Molding

resins BMC resins plastic/ compound
Prepreg

• Filament • Filament • Compression

winding winding molding
• Pultrusion • Filament • Autoclave • Autoclave
• Pultrusion
• RTM winding • Hot Press • Hot Press
• RTM
• Spray-up • Pultrusion • Tape • Tape
• Spray-up
• Hand lay- • Hand lay-up • RTM winding winding
up • Spray-up
• Hand lay-
up

74
 Manufacturing Techniques
Fundamentals
 Transformation of uncured or partially cured fiber-reinforced thermoset polymers
into composite parts or structures involves curing the material at elevated
temperatures and pressures for a predetermined length of time.
 High cure temperatures are required to initiate and sustain the chemical reaction
that transforms the uncured or partially cured material into a fully cured solid.
 High pressures are used to provide the force needed for the flow of the highly
viscous resin or fiber–resin mixture in the mold, as well as for the consolidation
of individual unbonded plies into a bonded laminate.
 The length of time required to properly cure a part is called the cure cycle. Since
the cure cycle determines the production rate for a part, it is desirable to achieve
the proper cure in the shortest amount of time.
 The cure cycle depends on an number of factors, including resin chemistry,
catalyst reactivity, cure temperature, and the presence of inhibitors or
accelerators.

75
 Manufacturing Techniques
Factors to be considered
 Degree of Cure
 Viscosity
 Resin Flow
 Consolidation
 Gel-time test
 Shrinkage
 Voids

76
 Manufacturing Techniques
Degree of Cure

 The degree of cure (αc) at any time t is defined as:

 H is the amount of heat released in time t and (dQ/dt) is the rate of heat
generation in an isothermal experiment conducted at a constant temperature T
 HR heat of reaction in dynamic heating

Fig: Schematic representation of the rate of heat generation in (a) dynamic and
(b) isothermal heating of a thermoset polymer in a differential scanning calorimeter (DSC). 77
 Manufacturing Techniques
Degree of Cure
 Higher cure temperatures increase the rate of cure and produce the maximum
degree of cure in shorter periods of time. On the other hand, the addition of a
low-profile agent, such as a thermoplastic polymer, to a polyester or a vinyl ester
resin decreases the cure rate.

Fig: Degree of cure for a vinyl ester resin at various cure temperatures. (After Han, C.D. and Lem,
K.W., J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 29, 1878, 1984.) 78
 Manufacturing Techniques
Viscosity
 Viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to flow under shear stresses.
 Low-molecular-weight fluids, such as water and motor oil, have low viscosities
and flow readily. High-molecular-weight fluids, such as polymer melts, have high
viscosities and flow only under high stresses.
 The two most important factors determining the viscosity of a fluid are the
temperature and shear rate.
 For all fluids, the viscosity decreases with increasing temperature. Shear rate
does not have any influence on the viscosity of low molecular-weight fluids,
whereas it tends to either increase (shear thickening) or decrease (shear
thinning) the viscosity of a high-molecular-weight fluids
 Polymer melts, in general, are shear-thinning fluids since their viscosity
decreases with increasing intensity of shearing

79
 Manufacturing Techniques
Resin Flow
 Proper flow of resin through a dry fiber network (in liquid composite molding
[LCM]) or a prepreg layup (in bag molding) is critical in producing void-free parts
and good fiber wet-out.
 In thermoset resins, curing may take place simultaneously with resin flow, and if
the resin viscosity rises too rapidly due to curing, its flow may be inhibited,
causing voids and poor interlaminar adhesion.
 Resin flow through fiber network has been modeled using Darcy’s equation,
which was derived for flow of Newtonian fluids through a porous medium.
 This equation relates the volumetric resin-flow rate q per unit area to the
pressure gradient that causes the flow to occur. For one-dimensional flow in the
x direction

80
 Manufacturing Techniques
Consolidation
 Consolidation of layers in a fiber network or a prepreg layup requires good resin
flow and compaction; otherwise, the resulting composite laminate may contain a
variety of defects, including voids, interply cracks, resin-rich areas, or resin-poor
areas.
 Good resin flow by itself is not sufficient to produce good consolidation.
 Both resin flow and compaction require the application of pressure during
processing in a direction normal to the dry fiber network or prepreg layup.
 The pressure is applied to squeeze out the trapped air or volatiles, as the liquid
resin flows through the fiber network or prepreg layup, suppresses voids, and
attains uniform fiber volume fraction

81
 Manufacturing Techniques
Gel-time test
 The curing characteristics of a resin–catalyst combination are frequently
determined by the gel-time test. In this test, a measured amount (10 g) of a
thoroughly mixed resin–catalyst combination is poured into a standard test tube.
 The temperature rise in the material is monitored as a function of time by means
of a thermocouple while the test tube is suspended in a 82 °C water bath.

82
 Manufacturing Techniques
Shrinkage
 Shrinkage is the reduction in volume or linear dimensions caused by curing as
well as thermal contraction.
 Curing shrinkage occurs because of the rearrangement of polymer molecules
into a more compact mass as the curing reaction proceeds.
 The thermal shrinkage occurs during the cooling period that follows the curing
reaction and may take place both inside and outside the mold.

83
 Manufacturing Techniques
Voids
 Presence of voids is considered the most critical defect in influencing its
mechanical properties.
 The most common cause for void formation is the inability of the resin to
displace air from the fiber surface during the time fibers are coated with the
liquid resin.
 The rate at which the fibers are pulled through the liquid resin, the resin
viscosity, the relative values of fiber and resin surface energies, and the
mechanical manipulation of fibers in the liquid resin affect air entrapment at the
fiber–resin interface.
 Voids may also be caused by air bubbles and volatiles entrapped in the liquid
resin.
 Solvents used for resin viscosity control, moisture, and chemical contaminants
in the resin, as well as styrene monomer, may remain dissolved in the resin mix
and volatilize during elevated temperature curing.
 In addition, air is also entrapped between various layers during the lamination
process

84
 Basic Manufacturing Steps

Impregnatio
n

Lay up

Consolidatio
n

Solidification

85
 Basic Manufacturing Steps
Impregnation
 In this step, fibers and resins are mixed together to form a lamina.
 The purpose of this step is to make sure that the resin flows entirely around all
fibers.
 Viscosity, surface tension, and capillary action are the main parameters affecting
the impregnation process.

86
 Basic Manufacturing Steps
Layup
 In this step, composite laminates are formed by placing fiber resin mixtures or
prepregs at desired angles and at places where they are needed.
 The purpose of this step is to achieve the desired fiber architecture as dictated
by the design.
 Performance of a composite structure relies heavily on fiber orientation and lay-
up sequence.

87
 Basic Manufacturing Steps
Consolidation
 This step involves creating intimate contact between each layer of prepreg or
lamina.
 This step ensures that all the entrapped air is removed between layers during
processing.
 Fibers go through elastic deformation when the compressive pressure
increases and resins flow out toward the boundary.

88
 Basic Manufacturing Steps
Solidification
 Vacuum or pressure is maintained during this period.
 The lower the solidification time, the higher the production rate achievable by
the process.
 This step ensures that all the entrapped air is removed between layers during
processing.
 In thermoplastics, there is no chemical change during solidification and therefore
solidification requires the least amount of time.
 In thermoplastics processing, the rate of solidification depends on the cooling
rate of the process.

89
 Hand lay-up and Spray lay-up techniques
Introduction
 Hand layup and spray techniques are perhaps the simplest polymer processing
techniques.
 Fibers can be laid onto a mold by hand and the resin (unsaturated polyester is
one of the most common) is sprayed or brushed on.
 Frequently, resin and fibers (chopped) are sprayed together onto the mold
surface.
 In both cases, the deposited layers are densified with rollers.
 Accelerators and catalysts are frequently used. Curing may be done at room
temperature or at a moderately high temperature in an oven.

90
 Hand lay-up and Spray lay-up techniques
Equipment

Fibers are laid onto a mold by hand, and the Resin and fibers (chopped) are sprayed
resin is sprayed or brushed on together onto the mold surface

Fig: Hand layup technique Fig: Spray-up technique

91
 Filament winding technique
Introduction and discussion
 Filament winding is a very versatile technique in which a continuous tow or
roving is passed through a resin impregnation bath and wound over a rotating or
stationary mandrel.
 A roving consists of thousands of individual filaments. The winding of roving can
be polar (hoop) or helical. In polar winding, the fiber tows do not cross over,
while in the helical they do.
 The fibers are, of course, laid on the mandrel in a helical fashion in helical
windings; the helix angle depends on the shape of the object to be made.
Successive layers are laid on at a constant or varying angle until the desired
thickness is attained.
 Curing of the thermosetting resin is done at an elevated temperature and the
mandrel is removed.
 Very large cylindrical (e.g., pipes) and spherical (e.g., for chemical storage)
vessels are built by filament winding. Glass, carbon, and aramid fibers are
routinely used with epoxy, polyester, and vinyl ester resins for producing filament
wound shapes.

92
 Filament winding technique
Introduction

Fig: Schematic of a filament-winding process.

93
 Compression moulding
Introduction
 The process is called compression molding, or alternately, matched-die molding.
 During this process a specific amount of material—the charge of uncured resin
and fibers—is placed into the cavity of a matched mold in the open position.
 The mold is closed by bringing the male and female halves together, and
pressure is exerted to squeeze the composite material so it uniformly fills the
mold cavity.
 While under pressure, the material is heated so that it cures.
 The molding process can require high pressures and so the molds are mounted
in large presses.
 The presses allow rapid mold cycles and high-volume production.

94
 Compression moulding
Equipment

95
Fig: Equipment for compression moulding
 Compression moulding
Discussion
 BMC is molded by placing a weighted amount of the material into the mold
cavity.
 The molds are then closed and the material is squeezed to fill the mold and heat
is applied by the molds to cure the part.
 Normally, the closing of the mold spreads the material evenly throughout the
mold. However, if the viscosity of the mixture is not within an acceptable range,
the resin, filler, and fiberglass may not flow to fill the mold properly.
 If the viscosity of the mixture is too low, the resin may flow but not move the
fiber with it.
 On the other hand, if the viscosity is too high, the entire mass may just sit in the
center of the mold and not flow at all.
 During molding, the viscosity drops initially because of heating. Then, when
curing begins, the viscosity increases.
 As indicated previously, proper flow occurs within a range of acceptable
viscosities and, of course, must occur before the onset of substantial curing.

96
 Pultrusion technique
Introduction
 The pultrusion process is a low-cost, high-volume manufacturing process in
which resin-impregnated fibers are pulled through a die to make the part.
 The process is similar to the metal extrusion process, with the difference being
that instead of material being pushed through the die in the extrusion process, it
is pulled through the die in a pultrusion process.
 Pultrusion creates parts of constant cross-section and continuous length.
 Pultrusion is a simple, low-cost, continuous, and automatic process.
 As the material passes through the heated die, it becomes partially or
completely cured.
 Pultrusion yields smooth finished parts that usually do not require post-
processing.

97
 Pultrusion technique
Equipment and process

Cut-off saw

Guide plate Preformer Curing die

Pulling system

Resin bath

Fiber creel

98
Fig: Equipment for pultrusion
 Pultrusion technique
Basic steps
 Spools of fiber yarns are kept on creels.
 Several fiber yarns from the spool are taken and passed through the resin bath.
 Hardener and resin systems are mixed in a container and the poured in the
resin bath.
 The die is heated to a specified temperature for the cure of resin.
 Resin-impregnated fibers are then pulled at constant speed from the die, where
resin gets compacted and solidified.
 The pultruded part is then cut to the desired length.

99
 Pultrusion technique
Advantages
 A continuous process and can be completely automated to get the finished part
 It is suitable for making high-volume composite parts. Typical production speeds
are 2 to 10 ft/min.
 It utilizes low-cost fiber and resin systems and thus provides production of low-
cost commercial products.

Limitations
 It is suitable for parts that have constant cross-sections along their length.
Tapered and complex shapes cannot be produced.
 Very high-tolerance parts on the inside and outside dimensions cannot be
produced using the pultrusion process.
 Thin wall parts cannot be produced fiber angles on pultruded parts are limited to
0°.
 Fabrics are used to get bidirectional properties.
 Structures requiring complex loading cannot be produced using this process
because the properties are mostly limited to the axial direction.

100
 Resin transfer moulding (RTM) technique
Introduction
 In RTM, several layers of dry continuous strand mat, woven roving, or cloth are
placed in the bottom half of a two-part mold, the mold is closed, and a catalyzed
liquid resin is injected into the mold via a centrally located sprue.
 The injection pressure is in the range of 69–690 kPa (10–100 psi).
 As the resin flows and spreads throughout the mold, it fills the space between
the fiber yarns in the dry fiber preform, displaces the entrapped air through the
air vents in the mold, and coats the fibers.
 Depending on the type of the resin–catalyst system used, curing is performed
either at room temperature or at an elevated temperature in an air-circulating
oven.
 After the cured part is pulled out of the mold, it is often necessary to trim the part
at the outer edges to conform to the exact dimensions.

101
 Resin transfer moulding (RTM) technique
Equipment and process

Fig: Equipment and process for RTM

(https://www.fose1.plymouth.ac.uk/sme/acmc/images/rtm_process2.gif) 102
 Vacuum bagging technique
Introduction
 Better parts can be made if some of the air is removed after the lay-up and
before the part is cured.

Fig: Vacuum bagging

technique

Fig: Vacuum bagging for CFRC in autoclave 103

(https://assets.materialstoday.com/wpimg/float/e951b0a5-6232-4b43-9139-ff8b713ee311.JPG)
 Vacuum bagging technique
Autoclaves
 Autoclaves are pressure vessels that allow the simultaneous imposition of
pressure by vacuum and heat.
 The vacuum line is led directly to the part. The major difficulty with autoclaves is
their high capitalization cost.
 This is because they must, by law, pass stringent pressure code regulations.
 However, because many small parts can be cured simultaneously in an average
autoclave, labor and cure costs on a per-part basis are not usually that high.
 Most autoclaves are equipped with a temperature and pressure control system
that allows for a programmed heating and pressurization cycle.

Fig: Autoclave
(http://www.boeingimages.com/Docs/BOE/Media/TR3_WATERMARKED/2/b/b/a/B
216312.jpg)

104
Thanks!

105