Set Theory

FC 01: Elementary Mathematics and Statistics

Jaipuria Institute of Management
Lucknow
 What is a SET ?
• A set is a structure, representing an unordered collection (group, plurality)
of zero or more distinct (different) objects.
• Set theory deals with operations between, relations among, and statements
about sets.
 Basic notations for sets
• To denote sets we use capital letters A,B, C, …
• We can denote a set A in writing by listing all of its elements in
curly braces:
• {a, b, c} is the set of whatever 3 objects are denoted by a, b, c.
• Set builder notation: For any proposition P(x) over any universe of
discourse, {x|P(x)} is the set of all x such that P(x).
e.g., {x | x is an integer where x>0 and x<5 }
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 Basic properties of sets
• Sets are inherently unordered:
• No matter what objects a, b, and c denote,
{a, b, c} = {a, c, b} = {b, a, c} =
{b, c, a} = {c, a, b} = {c, b, a}.
• All elements are distinct (unequal);
multiple listings make no difference!
• {a, b, c} = {a, a, b, a, b, c, c, c, c}.
• This set contains at most 3 elements!

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 Definition of Set Equality
• Two sets are declared to be equal if and only if they contain
exactly the same elements.
• In particular, it does not matter how the set is defined or
denoted.
• For example: The set {1, 2, 3, 4} =
{x | x is an integer where x>0 and x<5 } =
{x | x is a positive integer whose square is >0 and <25}
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 Infinite Sets
• Conceptually, sets may be infinite (i.e., not finite, without end, unending).
• Symbols for some special infinite sets:
N = {0, 1, 2, …} The natural numbers.
Z = {…, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, …} The integers.
R = The “real” numbers, such as
374.1828471929498181917281943125…
• Infinite sets come in different sizes!

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 Basic Set Relations: Member of
• xS (“x is in S”) is the proposition that object x is an element or
member of set S.
• e.g. 3N, “a”{x | x is a letter of the alphabet}
• Can define set equality in terms of  relation:
S,T: S=T  (x: xS  xT)
“Two sets are equal iff they have all the same members.”

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 The Empty Set
•  (“null”, “the empty set”) is the unique set that contains no elements
whatsoever.
•  = {} = {x|False}

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 Subset and Superset Relations
• ST (“S is a subset of T”) means that every element of S is also an
element of T.
• ST  x (xS  xT)
• S, SS.
• ST (“S is a superset of T”) means TS.
• Note S=T  ST & ST.

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 Venn Diagram
• ST (“S is a proper subset of T”) means that ST but TS
Example:
U {1,2} {1,2,3}

S
T
Venn Diagram equivalent of ST
S, T are  U 10
 Cardinality and Finiteness
• |S| or n(S) (read “the cardinality of S”) is a measure of how many different
elements S has.
• E.g., ||=0, |{1,2,3}| = 3, |{a,b}| = 2,
|{{1,2,3},{4,5}}| = ____
• We say S is infinite if it is not finite.
• What are some infinite sets we’ve seen?
• N, Z, R
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 The Union Operator
• For sets A, B, their union AB is the set containing all elements that are
either in A, or in B (or, of course, in both).
• Formally, A,B: AB = {x | xA or xB}.
• Note that AB contains all the elements of A or it contains all the
elements of B:
A, B: (AB  A) or (AB  B)

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 Union Examples
• {2,3,5}{3,5,7} = {2,3,5,3,5,7} ={2,3,5,7}

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 The Intersection Operator
• For sets A, B, their intersection AB is the set containing all elements that
are simultaneously in A and in B.
• Formally, A,B: AB{x | xA and xB}.
• Note that AB is a subset of A and it is a subset of B:
A, B: (AB  A) and (AB  B)

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 Intersection Examples
• {2,4,6}{3,4,5} = {4}

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Venn Diagrams

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 Disjointedness
• Two sets A, B are called disjoint (i.e., unjoined) iff their intersection is
empty. (AB=)
• Example: the set of even integers is disjoint with the set of odd integers.

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 Set Identities
• Identity: A=A AU=A
• Domination: AU=U A=
• Idempotent: AA = A = AA
• Commutative: AB=BA AB=BA
• Associative: A(BC)=(AB)C
A(BC)=(AB)C

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 Proving Identity : Mutual subsets
Example: Show A(BC)=(AB)(AC).
• Show A(BC)(AB)(AC).
• Assume xA(BC), & show x(AB)(AC).
• We know that xA, and either xB or xC.
• Case 1: xB. Then xAB, so x(AB)(AC).
• Case 2: xC. Then xAC , so x(AB)(AC).
• Therefore, x(AB)(AC).
• Therefore, A(BC)(AB)(AC).
• Similarly show (AB)(AC)  A(BC). …
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 Some Laws of set theory
• 𝑛(𝐴) = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝐴
• 𝑛 ( 𝐵 ) = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝐵
• 𝑛 ( 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ) = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵
• 𝑛 ( 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ) = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝐵
• When A and B are mutually non-exclusive sets:
• 𝑛 ( 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ) = 𝑛 ( 𝐴 ) + 𝑛 ( 𝐵 ) − 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
• When A, B, are mutually non-exclusive sets:
• 𝑛 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶 ) = 𝑛 ( 𝐴 ) + 𝑛 ( 𝐵 ) + 𝑛 ( 𝐶 ) − 𝑛 ( 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ) − 𝑛 ( 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 ) − 𝑛 ( 𝐴 ∩ 𝐶 ) + 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩
𝐶)
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 Practice Problem
• Out of forty students, 14 are taking English Composition and 29 are
taking Chemistry.
• If five students are in both classes, how many students are in neither
class?
• How many are in either class?

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Practice Problem

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Practice Problem

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