Mastering Object-Oriented Analysis

and Design with UML

Module 2: Concepts of Object Orientation
Objectives: Concepts of Object Orientation
 Explain the basic principles of object
orientation
 Define the basic concepts and terms of
object orientation and the associated UML
notation
 Demonstrate the strengths of object
orientation
 Present some basic UML modeling notation

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Best Practices Implementation
 Object technology helps implement
these Best Practices.
 Develop Iteratively: tolerates changing
requirements, integrates elements
progressively, facilitates reuse.
 Use Component-Based Architectures:
architectural emphasis, component-
based development.
 Model Visually: easy understanding,
easy modification.

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What Is Object Technology?
 Object technology
 A set of principles guiding
software construction
together with languages,
databases, and other tools
that support those principles.
(Object Technology: A
Manager’s Guide, Taylor,
1997)

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Strengths of Object Technology
 Provides a single paradigm
 A single language used by users, analysts, designers,
and implementers
 Facilitates architectural and code reuse
 Models more closely reflect the real world
 More accurately describes corporate entities
 Decomposed based on natural partitioning
 Easier to understand and maintain
 Provides stability
 A small change in requirements does not mean massive
changes in the system under development
 Is adaptive to change

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What Is a Model?
 A model is a simplification of reality.

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Why Do We Model?
 We build models to better understand the system
we are developing.
 Modeling achieves four aims. It:
 Helps us to visualize a system as we want it to be.
 Permits us to specify the structure or behavior of a
system.
 Gives us a template that guides us in constructing a
system.
 Documents the decisions we have made.
 We build models of complex systems because we
cannot comprehend such a system in its entirety.

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What Is an Object?
 Informally, an object represents an entity,
either physical, conceptual, or software.

 Physical entity
Truck

 Conceptual entity
Chemical Process

 Software entity
Linked List

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A More Formal Definition
Attributes
 An object is an entity
with a well-defined
boundary and identity
that encapsulates state
and behavior.
 State is represented by
attributes and
relationships.
 Behavior is represented
by operations, methods,
and state machines. Object
Operations

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An Object Has State
 The state of an object is one of the possible
conditions in which the object may exist.
 The state of an object normally changes over
time.

Name: J Clark
Employee ID: 567138
HireDate: 07/25/1991
Status: Tenured
Discipline: Finance
MaxLoad: 3
Name: J Clark
Employee ID: 567138
Date Hired: July 25, 1991
Status: Tenured
Discipline: Finance
Maximum Course Load: 3 classes Professor Clark

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An Object Has Behavior
 Behavior determines how an object acts and
reacts.
 The visible behavior of an object is modeled by
the set of messages it can respond to (operations
the object can perform).
Ac
ce
pt

()
C ou

es
rs

ad
eO

Gr
f fe
rin

al
g(

in
)

itF
bm
Su
Se
tM
ax
Professor Clark’s behavior

Lo
ad
Submit Final Grades

()
Accept Course Offering TakeSabbatical()
Take Sabbatical
Maximum Course Load: 3 classes Professor Clark
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An Object Has Identity
 Each object has a unique identity, even if
the state is identical to that of another
object.

Professor “J Clark” Professor “J Clark”

teaches Biology teaches Biology

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Representing Objects in the UML
 An object is represented as a rectangle
with an underlined name.
J Clark : Professor

Named Object

: Professor
Professor J Clark

Unnamed Object

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What Are Stereotypes?
 Stereotypes define a new model element in
terms of another model element.
 Sometimes you need to introduce new things
that speak the language of your domain and
look like primitive building blocks.

<<stereotype>> Stereotype
Class

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Basic Principles of Object Orientation

Object Orientation

Encapsulation

Modularity

Hierarchy
Abstraction

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What Is Abstraction?
 The essential characteristics
of an entity that distinguish it
from all other kinds of entities
 Defines a boundary relative to
the perspective of the viewer
 Is not a concrete manifestation,
denotes the ideal essence of
something

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Example: Abstraction

Student Professor

Course Offering (9:00 AM,

Monday-Wednesday-Friday) Course (e.g., Algebra)

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What Is Encapsulation?

 Hide implementation from clients.

 Clients depend on interface.

Improves Resiliency
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Encapsulation Illustrated
 Professor Clark Professor Clark

needs to be able Ac
to teach four ce

()
pt
Co

es
ur
classes in the

ad
se

Gr
O ffe

al
r
next semester. ing

in
()

itF
Name: J Clark

m
Employee ID: 567138

b
Su
HireDate: 07/25/1991
Status: Tenured

Se
Discipline: Finance
SetMaxLoad(4)

tM
MaxLoad:4

axL
oa
d()
TakeSabbatical()

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What Is Modularity?
 Modularity is the breaking
up of something complex into
manageable pieces.
 Modularity helps people to
understand complex systems.

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Example: Modularity
 For example, break
complex systems into
smaller modules. Billing
System

Course
Catalog
System

Course Registration
System Student
Management
System

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What Is Hierarchy?
Asset
Increasing
abstraction

BankAccount Security RealEstate

Savings Checking Stock Bond

Decreasing Elements at the same level of the hierarchy

abstraction should be at the same level of abstraction.
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What Is a Class?
 A class is a description of a set of objects that
share the same attributes, operations,
relationships, and semantics.
 An object is an instance of a class.
 A class is an abstraction in that it
 Emphasizes relevant characteristics.
 Suppresses other characteristics.

Class
+ attribute
+ operation()

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Representing Classes in the UML
 A class is represented using a rectangle with
compartments.

Professor
- name
- employeeID : UniqueID
- hireDate
- status
- discipline
- maxLoad
+ submitFinalGrade()
+ acceptCourseOffering() Professor J Clark
+ setMaxLoad()
+ takeSabbatical()

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The Relationship Between Classes and Objects
 A class is an abstract definition of an object.
 It defines the structure and behavior of each object in
the class.
 It serves as a template for creating objects.
 Classes are not collections of objects.

Professor Torpie Professor

Professor Meijer Professor Allen

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What Is an Attribute?
 An attribute is a named property of a class that
describes a range of values that instances of
the property may hold.
 A class may have any number of attributes or no attributes at all.

Student
- name
- address
Attributes - studentID
- dateOfBirth

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What Is an Operation?
 An operation is the implementation of a service
that can be requested from any object of the
class to affect behavior.
 A class may have any number of operations or
none at all.

Student

+ getTuition()
+ addSchedule()
Operations + getSchedule()
+ deleteSchedule()
+ hasPrerequisites()

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What Is Polymorphism?

 The ability to hide many different

implementations behind a single interface

Manufacturer B
Manufacturer A Manufacturer C

OO Principle:
Encapsulation
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Example: Polymorphism

financialInstrument.getCurrentValue()

ge ge ge
tC tC tC
ur ur ur
re re re
nt nt nt
V alu Va V alu
lu
e( e( e(
) ) )

Stock Bond Mutual Fund

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What Is an Interface?
 Interfaces formalize polymorphism
 Interfaces support “plug-and-play” architectures

Tube

<<interface>>
Shape
Pyramid
+ draw()
+ move()
+ scale()
+ rotate()
Cube

Realization relationship
(stay tuned for realization relationships)
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How Do You Represent an Interface?
Elided/Iconic Tube
Representation
(“lollipop”) Pyramid

Shape
Cube

Canonical <<interface>>
Tube
(Class/Stereotype) Shape
Representation Pyramid
+ draw()
+ move()
+ scale()
+ rotate() Cube

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What Is a Package?
 A package is a general-purpose mechanism for
organizing elements into groups.
 It is a model element that can contain other
model elements.

UniversityArtifacts

 A package can be used:

 To organize the model under development.
 As a unit of configuration management.

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What Is a Subsystem?
 A combination of a package (can contain other
model elements) and a class (has behavior)
 Realizes one or more interfaces which define
its behavior

Subsystem Realization Interface

<<subsystem>>
SubsystemName
Interface1

OO Principles: Encapsulation and Modularity

(stay tuned for realization relationships)
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What Is a Component?
 A non-trivial, nearly independent, and
replaceable part of a system that fulfills
a clear function in the context of a well-
defined architecture
 A component may be
 A source code component Source File
Name

<<DLL>>
 A run time component Component
Component
Name
Interface

<<EXE>>

 An executable component Executable

Name

OO Principle: Encapsulation
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Subsystems and Components
 Components are the physical realization of
an abstraction in the design
 Subsystems can be used to represent the
component in the design
Design Model Implementation Model

<<subsystem>>
Component
Component Name
Component Name
Component
Interface
Interface

OO Principles: Encapsulation and Modularity

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Components UML 1.4 and Beyond
 UML 1.4 introduces concept of Artifacts:
 An Artifact represents a physical piece of
information that is used or produced by a
software development process. Examples of
Artifacts include models, source files, scripts,
and binary executable files.
 To distinguish between artifacts in general,
and the artifacts that make up the
implementation, we introduce a new term:
 Implementation Element - the physical parts
(UML artifacts) that make up an
implementation, including software code files
(source, binary or executable), and data files.

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Components UML 1.4 and Beyond (cont.)
 Component becomes similar to subsystem:
 can group classes to define a larger granularity
units of a system
 can separate the visible interfaces from internal
implementation
 can have instances that execute at run-time
 The distinction between "component" and
"artifact" is new in UML 1.4.
 Many tools, profiles, and examples continue to
use "component" to represent implementation
elements.
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What Is an Association?
 The semantic relationship between two or
more classifiers that specifies connections
among their instances
 A structural relationship, specifying that objects of one
thing are connected to objects of another

<<Entity>> <<Entity>> <<Entity>>

Student Schedule Course

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What Is Multiplicity?
 Multiplicity is the number of instances one class
relates to ONE instance of another class.
 For each association, there are two multiplicity
decisions to make, one for each end of the
association.
 For each instance of Professor, many Course
Offerings may be taught.
 For each instance of Course Offering, there may be
either one or zero Professor as the instructor.

<<Entity>> <<Entity>>
Professor + instructor CourseOffering
0..1 0..*

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Multiplicity Indicators
Unspecified
Exactly One 1

Zero or More 0..*

Zero or More *

One or More 1..*

Zero or One (optional scalar role) 0..1

Specified Range 2..4

Multiple, Disjoint Ranges 2, 4..6

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What Is Aggregation?
 An aggregation is a special form of association
that models a whole-part relationship between
an aggregate (the whole) and its parts.
 An aggregation is an “Is a part-of” relationship.
 Multiplicity is represented like other
associations.

Whole Part

1 0..1

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What Is Navigability?
 Indicates that it is possible to navigate from a
associating class to the target class using the
association

<<Control>>
RegistrationController

<<Entity>> <<Entity>>
Schedule CourseOffering

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Relationships: Dependency
 A relationship between two model elements
where a change in one may cause a change in
the other
 Non-structural, “using” relationship
Dependency
relationship
Class Client Supplier

Dependency
relationship
Component Client Supplier

Dependency
relationship

Package ClientPackage SupplierPackage

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What Is Generalization?
 A relationship among classes where one
class shares the structure and/or behavior
of one or more classes
 Defines a hierarchy of abstractions in which
a subclass inherits from one or more
superclasses
 Single inheritance
 Multiple inheritance
 Is an “is a kind of” relationship

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Example: Single Inheritance
 One class inherits from another
Account
- balance
Superclass - name
(Parent) - number
(Ancestor) + withdraw()
+ createStatement() Generalization
Relationship

Savings Checking

Subclass
(Child)
(Descendents)
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Example: Multiple Inheritance
 A class can inherit from several other classes.

FlyingThing Animal

Multiple Inheritance

Airplane Helicopter Bird Wolf Horse

Use multiple inheritance only when needed and

always with caution!
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What Gets Inherited?
 A subclass inherits its parent’s attributes,
operations, and relationships
 A subclass may:
 Add additional attributes, operations,
relationships
 Redefine inherited operations (use caution!)
 Common attributes, operations, and/or
relationships are shown at the highest
applicable level in the hierarchy

Inheritance leverages the similarities among classes

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Example: What Gets Inherited

GroundVehicle + owner Person

Superclass
(Parent) 0..* 1

generalization

Car Truck Trailer

Subclass
(Child)

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What Is Realization?
 One classifier serves as the contract that the other
classifier agrees to carry out, found between:
 Interfaces and the classifiers that realize them
Component Interface

Class
Interface

<<subsystem>>
Subsystem Interface

 Use cases and the collaborations that realize them

Collaboration UseCase

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What Are Notes?
 A comment that can be added to include more
information on the diagram
 May be added to any UML element
 A “dog eared” rectangle
 May be anchored to an element with a dashed
line

There can be up to one

MaintainScheduleForm MaintainScheduleForm
per user session.

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Review: Concepts of Object Orientation
 What are the four basic principles of object
orientation? Provide a brief description of
each.
 What is an object and what is a class?
What is the difference between the two?
 What is an attribute?
 What is an operation?
 What is polymorphism? What
is an interface?

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Review: Concepts of Object Orientation (cont.)
 What is a package?
 What is a subsystem? How does it relate to
a package? How does it relate to a class?
 Name the four basic UML relationships and
describe each.
 Describe the strengths of object orientation
 What are stereotypes?

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