CRIME SCENE CRIME SCENE CRIME SCENE

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the session, the participants will be
able to:
1.Define physical evidence and trace evidence;

2.Know the different forensic examinations under

Physical Identification;
 3. Identify physical evidence, its nature, properties
and characteristics along with an overview of where
these items are routinely found, their evidentiary
value in the investigation of a crime, and how they are
collected as evidence and comparison standards;

4. Learn to recognize, collect, preserve and package

pieces of physical evidence;

5. Appreciate its evidentiary value and importance;

6.Be aware of the laboratory services of PNP Crime

Laboratory
 Importance of PI
 Macro-Etching
 Bullet Trajectory
 Hair and Fibers
 Tool marks
 Casting and molding
 Paint, soil analysis
 Glass and fractures
 Ultra-Violet
 LOCARD’S EXCHANGE PRINCIPLE
CRIME SCENE CRIME SCENE CRIME SCENE

“Any action of an individual, and obviously the violent

action constituting a crime, cannot occur without leaving a
trace”.
- Edmund Locard
Father of Modern Forensics
The Importance of Physical Identification 

 Establishes investigative leads

 Resolves ownership issues
 Strengthens filed cases in court
 Proves that a crime has been committed, or establish key elements of
the crime.
 links a suspect to the victim or the crime scene.
 Establishes the identity of persons associated with a crime.
 Exonerates innocent.
 Corroborate victim’s testimony.
 Induces a suspect to make admissions, or even confess.
 Negative evidence can help provide proof.
 Physical evidence can be more reliable than eyewitness testimony.
MACRO-ETCHING
Macro-etching is an application of chemical
solution on the metal surface where the
serial number is normally located and
observing any reaction that may take place.
Purpose of Macro Etching:

1. To determine whether or not the serial numbers of Motor

Vehicles or Firearms are tampered. 
2. To restore the original serial number of an article in
questioned.  
Basic importance of number restoration:
It establishes investigative lead from article/property that
may have been taken from the scene of the crime

It proves that the property found in the possession of the

suspect is actually owned by the victim; and

It resolves conflicting claims of property that has been

recovered by the investigators.
Theories in Number Restoration
When a letter or number is
stamped into a cold metal surface
a molecular disturbance occurs
directly beneath.
When a letter or number is
punched into a metal, a
deformation occurs on the metal
surface that is the metal is being
compressed.
 
PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION on
MACRO-ETCHING PROCESS

• Search for the normal

location of the serial
number;
• Remove grease and oil
using alcohol and/or
gasoline;
• Polish the area using sand
paper;
• Photograph.
 SPOT DETECTION OF
TAMPERED/OBLITERATED SERIAL NUMBERS
 Presence of any sign of welding
 Presence of several scratches and filing marks
 Presence of any sign of concavity
 Presence of any difference in the style of letters and
numbers;
 Appearance of fragmentary marks which could not
be properly identified, partly superimposed by the
letters and numbers;
 Presence of any differences in the spacing of
individual letters and numbers
• Misalignments of letters and numbers;
• Absence of one or more letters before in
between or after a set of sequential numbers
• Sizes and style of letters and numbers are
sharper and coarser than the others.
• Presence of any irregularities in the depth of
individual letters and numbers
• Absence of rating plate
• Model of the vehicle and the chassis number
does not tally with that of the rating plate;
• Alteration of the production number.
Tool Marks
TOOLMARKS
Toolmarks - any impression, cut, abrasion, or gouge left
by a tool after coming in contact with an object.

Tools – Any object capable of making an impression on

another solid object. Examples include axes, knives,
screwdrivers, chisels, crowbars, pliers, cutters, and drill
bits. Tools may be store-bought or homemade.
 2 TYPES OF TOOLMARKS

Impressions - those toolmarks in which only the general

form and size of the tool are apparent.

Striations - those toolmarks in which peculiar

characteristics or irregularities of the tool are reproduced
in the form of indentations or striations.
How Toolmarks are Created
Compression
Friction
Repetition
Combination
Places and Surfaces
where Toolmarks
Might be Observed in
Criminal
Investigations

1. wire, chains
2. door and window frames
3. sections of sheet metal
4. safety-deposit boxes, safes
5. human bone or cartilage
6. padlocks, doorknobs
7. bolts and locks
8. and a variety of other
materials.
Comparisons between a tool and a toolmark.
These comparisons include the following:

1. Toolmark with Tool.

 Establishment of the presence or non-presence of class
characteristics.
Examination of the tool for foreign deposits, such as paint or
metal to compare with the marked object.
Microscopic comparison with several test marks or cuts
made with the tool.
 
2. Toolmark without Tool

Size of the tool used (class characteristics only).

Type of tool used (class characteristics only).
Unusual features of the tool (class or individual
characteristics).
Action employed by the tool in its normal operation,
and/or in its present condition.
If the toolmark is of value for identification purposes.
 Bolt cutter Individual Characteristics on bolt cutter

Tool Marks
Common Tools found
In Crime Scene
Toolmark ID of Bolt Cutters
Identification Under and Lock
Comparison
Microscope
EvidenceSubmitted
in Toolmark Cases
May Include Tools

1. screwdrivers and chisels

2. scissors
3. knives and box cutters
4. pliers and wrenches
5. crowbars tire irons
6. saws, knives
7. bolt cutters
Tool Mark Characteristics
Preservation and Packaging of Tools
All areas on recovered tools should be wrapped in
paper and packaged to prevent the prying blades or cutting
edges from contacting any other surface or object.
Attempts should never be made to fit tools into
questioned marks or to make test marks prior to
Laboratory examination.
 HAIRS
CRIME SCENE CRIME SCENE CRIME SCENE
Hair is a filamentous outgrowth of dead
cells from the skin found only on
mammals.
Purposes of examination:
1.To determine whether the hair in questioned
originated from an animal or human being and the
comparison of questioned and known hairs.
2. To ascertain whether one or more individuals could
have come into contact with an object.
 EVIDENCIARY VALUE OF HAIR

The value of hair as evidence in the criminal cases

has been clearly recognized.
 It is seldom conclusive as evidence, but in
conjunction with other details, has proven to be an
important and essential aid to the investigator.
 FACTS ABOUT HAIR
Each individual hair is formed inside a hair bulb
deep in a hair follicle.
The follicle is a tiny but powerful factory which
throughout many people’s lifetime continues to
produce hair.
The average human head has about 100,000 hair
follicles. Some people have as many as 150,000.
Each follicle can grow about 20 individual hairs in a
person’s lifetime.
Each new hair grows for several years and can
reach over a meter in length.
Average hair loss is about 100 strands a day.
As anytime around 80-90% of most
people’s hair follicles are in the anagen or
growing phase, 2% are in the catagen
phase or the transition period between the
anagen and the telogen phase or resting
phase which are about 10-18%, where hair
are routinely lost.
Next to teeth and bones, it is also one of
the most decay-resistant human elements.
HAIR STRUCTURE
3 Parts of Hair
Root bulb- the shape of the root bulb will
determine if the hair was pulled by force or not.
Hair shaft – contains the most information about
the hair.
Tip – will show if the hair is cut, burned or if it
has split ends
 3 Parts of the Hair Shaft
1.Cuticle – is the outer surface of the hair and when
viewed under a microscope appears to be
composed of scale like flakes, each overlapping
the others like the scale of a fish.
2.Medulla – is the central canal of the hair shaft. It
could be continuous, fragmented, interrupted or
absent.
3.Cortex – contains the color pigmentation of the
hair..
 
 KINDS OF HAIR EXAMINATION

1. Hair Microscopy - The examination of human hairs in

the forensic laboratory is typically conducted through
the use of comparison microscope.
2. DNA examination will give a reliable finding as to the
origin of the hair.
 SCOPE OF MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION:
1. CHARACTERISTICS OF RACES
• MONGOLOID (ROUND, PRODUCING STRAIGTH AND LONG
HAIR)
• CAUCASIAN (OVAL)
• NEGROID (FLATTENED, KINKY)
2.CHARACTERISTICS OF BODY LOCATIONS
• HEAD HAIR (UNIFORM DIAMETER FOR HUMAN HAIR)
• FACIAL HAIR; i.e., BEARDS AND MUSTACHES
(TRIANGUAR)
• PUBIC HAIR (IRREGULAR DIAMETER)
ARMPIT HAIR (IRREGILAR DIAMETER)
3. MEDULLA INDEX (RATIO OF MEDULLA DIAMETER
TO WHOLE HAIR)
• HUMAN HAIR (ROUGHLY 1/3)
• ANIMAL HAIR (MAYBE SMALLER OR LARGER)

4.TREATMENT OR PHYSICAL CHANGES

• IF FORCIBLY REMOVED
• IF HAIR HAS BEEN CUT WITH A DULL OR SHARP INSTRUMENT
(AND HOW LONG AGO, IF THE HAIR CONTINUED TO BE
SUBJECT TO FRICTION OR COMBING)
• IF HAIR HAS BEEN CRUSHED OR BURNED
• IF HAIR HAS BEEN DYED OR BLEACHED
Naturally shed hairs, such as a head
hair dislodged through combing,
display undamaged, club-shaped
roots.

A hair forcibly removed from the scalp

will exhibit stretching and damage to
the root area.

Forcibly removed hairs may have

tissue attached

A hair showing buckling

 
 

 
 A razor-cut hair

 A split hair

 A hair with a cut tip

 FIBERS
CRIME SCENE CRIME SCENE CRIME SCENE
FIBER
Fiber or filament is the smallest single unit forming
the basis of the textile yarn.

A yarn is composed of numerous fibers which are spun,

twisted, or drawn together to prepare the unit for weaving or
knitting. A yarn is sometimes called a thread by the layman.
.
CLASSES OF FIBER
D. Mineral – minerals provide fibers such as glass, wool,
and asbestos.
E. Synthetics – chemistry has produced a number of
fibers including rayon, nylon, orlon and dacron.

Cotton fiber Wool fiber

 Multiple Fiber Associations

Multiple fiber types found on different items of

clothing or fabric from the suspect, victim, and crime
scene greatly increase the likelihood that contact
occurred between these individuals and the scene.
Each associated fiber type is considered to be an
independent event and multiple associations
FACTORS AFFFECTING FIBER ASSOCIATION
FIBER TYPES
FIBER COLORS
FIBER NUMBERS
FABRIC TYPES
Nature of Contact
The number of fibers transferred may determine
the type of physical contact between a suspect
and a victim and the value placed on their
discovery. Violent physical contact of an
extended duration will very often result in
numerous fiber transfers.
 VALUE OF FIBERS IN INVESTIGATION

Widely recognized.
An important and valuable aid to the crime
scene specialist.
 helps place a suspect at the scene of the crime.
 SEARCHING FOR FIBER EVIDENCE
The crime scene specialist should search clothing,
headgear, and pay particular attention to linings,
pockets and cuffs.
The general crime scene itself should be carefully
searched for all fiber evidence, particularly any
location that may have been the site of struggle or
assault.
COLLECTION OF FIBERS AS EVIDENCE

If threads or large fibers are found, they can be picked up

with the fingers and placed in a paper bindle, then in a coin
envelope, which can be sealed and marked.
Pick up fibers on tape only if the laboratory in your
jurisdiction allows it and gives you its requirements.
In sex offenses, assaults, and some other cases, it may
be possible to indicate or demonstrate contact between
two individuals or between one other individual and
some other object, such as a car seat, by comparing
fibers.
 Bullet Trajectory

CRIME SCENE CRIME SCENE CRIME SCENE

 BULLET TRAJECTORY

The bullet travels in a horizontal direction,

the trajectory of a bullet is the path of flight it
follows from being fired to reaching its target.
The range of the trajectory is the total
distance at is, the distance between the gun and
its target.
 
Necessary for crime scene reconstruction.
Establishes firer’s position.
Corroborates or contradicts witness statements.
Determines whether a fatal shooting was
homicide or suicide.
 Bullet Hole Characteristics
 Bullet entrance holes - typically have very even margins
and presence of wipe residue.
  Bullet exit holes - usually have irregular margins, larger in
diameter than the original diameter of the bullet.
 Contact entrance holes - typically show extreme damage to
the material of a garment. 
 Secondary bullet entrance hole - very irregular in shape
and hard to visibly distinguish from an exit hole. 
 Bullets that strike a target at an extreme angle will usually
leave an elongated hole.
Typical bullet entrance hole in a  Typical contact entrance hole.
holster.
Two bullet 7.62X39mm
entrance holes where the
Bullets struck a
windshield prior to
entering the garment. 
Very irregular holes with
fragmentation and lead
spray (pink).

Angled bullet
entrance hole.

Angled grazing
bullet holes made
by a single bullet.
 Typical Bullet Exit Holes

  Once the bullet holes have been examined and fully

documented, it's time to start looking for evidence that
may allow for a distance determination to be made.
Casting and Molding
 Definition of Terms
Cast- reproduction of an object, known as positive
impression..
Subject- an impression that is to be reproduced.
Mold- impression made or left by an object, known as
negative impression.
Molding- process of reproducing the impression of an
object.
Casting is a process whereby a reproduction of an
object is secured by introducing a suitable hardening
material into the impression.
SHOEPRINT
SHOE PRINT

Shoe print and tire impression evidence is another

form of valuable physical evidence that is often
encountered at the crime scenes. impression
evidence can provide irrefutable proof of the
presence of an individual or a vehicle at a crime
scene or in contact with a victim.
3 KINDS OF SHOEPRINTS
Patent
Plastic
Latent
TECHNIQUES OF COLLECTION

Dusting with special powder

Electrostatic lifting
Making plastic casts
Shoe print in Crime Scene
Tire tracks
are the impressions left by tires on the surface
onto which a vehicle drove If the surface is soft or
semi-soft, such as mud, dirt, or snow, the tire will
leave an imprint under the weight of the vehicle. Tire
tracks are usually found in road accident scenes or in
the access and escape routes of other crime scenes.
TIRE IMPRESSION
Tires are made of semi-hard rubber and are
characterized by class and individual
characteristics. These characteristics may be
reproduced in the tracks left by the tire,
depending on the surface and the
circumstances under which the track occurred.
TIRE CHARACTERISTICS

Class characteristics - include size and

general patterns.
Individual characteristics - include regular
wear and tear as well as accidental cuts or
holes.
Common Sample Tire Prints
LABORATORY EXAMINATION
The examination may yield:
1. positive proof of contact the
shoe/tire with the surface;
2. the possibility that contact did
occur; or
3. the possibility that contact did not
occur.
TYPES
 
OF EXAMINATIONS
1. Comparative- are conducted to determine if a
known shoe or tire made the impression.

2. Investigative- are conducted on impressions

to provide information regarding manufacture
or design descriptions that may provide
investigative leads.
 IMPRESSION CHARACTERISTICS
 
1. Design characteristics- this is the basic
pattern of the shoe sole or tire tread design.
2. Wear patterns- as the shoe or tire is worn or used
on a vehicle the pattern area will wear down as
erosion of the tread or sole material takes place.
3. Accidental characteristics- during the normal use of
the shoe or tire some damage such as small cuts and
nicks are imparted on the tread or pattern surface.
Paint
PAINT

Paint evidence
It is frequently encountered in hit and run
cases, on tools used by burglars, and occasionally
on other types of cases.
 Hit-and- Run Cases
 Examine all areas, with particular attention being paid to
areas showing pressure glaze, tears, or other contact.
 If found, do not remove the paint, but mark the garment,
 If loose paint chips are found, attempt to remove and
place them in a paper bindle.
 Broken lenses or other vehicular parts that are present
are useful in make/ model searches
 A copy of the officer's report should also be submitted to
the laboratory, as it may contain information pertinent to
the search.
 With-the sample in the bindle, scotch tape can be
removed and the open end of the bindle folded several
times. It can be placed in a coin or mailing envelope,
which can be marked and sealed. Scotch tape may be
used to seal the bindle, but such containers should
never be stapled.
 When cross transfers occur, always collect known,
uncontaminated samples from areas immediately
adjacent to each collected transfer.
 COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF
PAINT EVIDENCE

Paint as evidence may be collected in one

of the following forms:
 
 Small flakes or chips;
 Traces of oxidized (chalking) paint;
 Smears from fresh paint; and
 An intact painted surface or item.
 
Soil

Soil is not just plain dirt. It is a conglomerate of

several things. They include minerals, plants, animal
matter, and tiny particulates of synthetic products like
glass, paint, asphalt, cement, and other things. The
contents of soil are not uniform wherever you go.
They differ from one place to another.
 Soil on a suspect's shoe or splattered inside a
car fender can provide forensic scientists with
information about the travels of suspects and crime
victims.
Soil recovered from shoes, clothes, and
automobiles can be analyzed in order to determine
if a suspect was or was not in a particular location.
This is done by carefully comparing the color,
particle size and shape, mineralogical composition,
and biological components of a soil sample
obtained from a suspect to those of soil from a
known location.
GLASS
GLASS PROPERTIES

Glass seldom breaks squarely

across but leaves convex/concave
edges, or stress lines, on the
fractured edges; that it bends and
stretches before breaking; and that
breaks produce both radial (primary)
and concentric (secondary) fractures.
Glass Fractures
Glass bends in response to any force that is exerted
on any one of its surfaces, when the limit of elasticity is
reached, the glass fractures. Fractured window glass will
reveal information that can be related to the force and
direction of impact, which is useful in reconstructing
events at a crime-scene investigation
THEORIES IN A GLASS FRACTURE
1. Glass is somewhat flexible , it tends to bend upon application
of force.
2. Glass first bend on the direction where force is applied
causing the opposite side to stretch.
Types of Glass Fracture

 Radial or primary fracture

resembles the spoke of a
wheel wherein the radiating
rod originates at a common
point
 Concentric or secondary
fracture : the radiating rod is
being connected to one
another and has a cob-web
appearance.
Factors To Be Determined in Glass
Fracture
1. Point of Impact : The front of the glass can be
determined dust to accumulation of dust and dirt to
the glass
2 Direction of Impact or Force (Position of the Firer):
> Perpendicular shot – exhibits an even
distribution of chippings on the exit side of the
glass
> Angle from the right (Right to Left) – heavy
flakings or chippings on the left side of the glass
> Angle from the left (Left to Right) – heavy
flakings or chippings on the right side of the glass
3. Age of the Fracture
> Fresh fracture – exhibits a regular pattern
of radial and concentric fractures.
> Old Fracture – presence of a short
extension lines at the end of the radial trackings

4. Cause of Fracture
> Due to natural means – exhibits a plain
wavy lines
> Due to mechanical means – exhibits a
regular pattern of radial/ concentric fracture
Chipping and flaking action due to grinding and fractured
edges
Fractures Caused by Heat

Heat fractures are characteristically

wave-shaped.
Heat fractures will also show little, if
any, curve patterns (stress lines) along the
edges. Expansion of the glass (stretching
action) occurs first on the side exposed

Fractures due to heat

FRACTURE IMPACTS
1.On high velocity:
Usually characteristic of high velocity breaking
forces like bullet from a firearm, a rock from a
slingshot.
Typically produces an individual hole with small
and limited radial fractures.
 Morphologically resemble a “cone” with grater
amount of glass absent on the opposite side of the
impact.
Short, dense radial fractures.
2. On low velocity impact:
Are characterized by an increased number of
well developed radial fractures; usually
accompanied by concentric fractures
surrounding the point of impact
Lower velocity penetrations (rock, golf balls,
hammer)
FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO THE
RESULTING CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
FRACTURE
 Size and hardness of the projectile
 Shape and density of the projectile
 Distance between the “shooter” and the window,
which relates to the projectile initial and terminal
velocity:
 Thickness and the type of glass affect the type of
fracture or perforation to be sustained by the
window
Value of Glass as Evidence
Glass can have relatively high value as
evidence because of the identifiable variations in its
physical properties and methods of manufacture.
The evidence value of glass is also enhanced by the
fact that large fragments may frequently be
physically matched. Such physical matches are
positive or certain. However, a laboratory is limited in
that it can only conclude that particular glass
evidence consisting of tiny granules “ has the same
composition” as the original glass.
COLLECTING AND
HANDLING
As with other types of evidence, glass and glass
fragments must be photographed and their locations
noted on the crime scene sketch before they are
touched or moved. Pertinent date must be recorded in
your notes concerning the glass and any obvious,
suspected, or hypothetical relation it has to the
incident under investigation.
MARKING

Glass fragments of sufficient size are marked with a

diamond point or carborundum pencil, a piece of properly
marked adhesive tape, or a grease pencil. Markings are
placed in an area that is of value as evidence. Markings
should include your initials, the date, and time.
PRESERVATION

Glass or glass fragments should be:

wrapped in soft paper, cotton or similar
material;
placed wrapped glass in a suitable container
should be properly fastened so that it will not
shift
wrappings and containers should be marked
“Fragile’
 Ultraviolet
Powder Examination
Ultraviolet
Powder Examination

Ultraviolet Examination is the

application of ultraviolet light (a
type of radiation with shorter
wavelength but higher in
frequency than the commonly
recognized on visible light) in
the material to be investigated.
Purpose of examination
To determine the presence of ultraviolet fluorescent
powder on dusted/marked money and/or hands of the
suspect/s.
Common applications
Illegal recruitment;
Extortion;
 Drug buy-bust operations
UV Powder
The Ultraviolet Thief Detection Powder (UV powder) is
designed for the thief detection and identification of stolen
or altered items. The UV powder once touched remains on
fingers and hands, invisible except under UV light.
Powder is recommended for indoor use.
UV PASTE

Ultraviolet powder and paste can be

applied to locks, fire alarm boxes, off-limits
door knobs, computer keyboards, etc, the
list is unlimited, depending upon your
security requirements. To make an
ultraviolet paste, simply mix the powder in
Vaseline.
Ultraviolet light

(UV) light is electromagnetic radiation

with a wavelength shorter than that of
visible light, but longer than x-rays, in
the range 10 nm to 400 nm, It is so
named because the spectrum consists
of electromagnetic waves with
frequencies higher than those that
humans identify as the color violet.
Theory of ultraviolet radiation
Electromagnetic spectrum
 Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is a form of
electromagnetic radiation, like visible light, infrared,
microwaves, radio-waves ,x-rays, and gamma rays.
 Visible light radiates at wavelength between 400 and
700 nanometers and refers to the only portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum that can be seen by the human
eye.
UVA- commonly known as longwave UV ( LW ),
near-ultraviolet, blacklight, or Wood’s light, between
320 and 400nm, also previously known as low
frequency (LF)
UVB- also known as middle wave UV,between 280
and 320nm
UVC- referred to as shortwave (SW), far ultraviolet,
or germicidal UV, between 180 and 280nm, also
previously known as high frequency (HF)
VACCUM UV- between 10 and 180nm
Ultraviolet wave is not visible to the human eyes. An
object is not illuminated by, but irradiated with such a
wave. Therefore the term UV radiation is more
appropriate than the term UV light.
Summary
In this lesson, we looked at the various types of physical
evidence that are commonly found at a crime scene and
examined their evidentiary value, as well as where the crime
scene specialist should look to find these valuable pieces of
evidence. In addition, we learned that the successful solution of
a crime may depend entirely upon the successful collection and
preservation pieces of physical evidence by a knowledgeable
crime scene specialist and the subsequent examination of the
evidence at a crime laboratory for physical identification..
Practical exercises will be given after the lecture. They
will be given time also to visit PNP Crime Lab for exposure
and familiarization with the forensic examinations and its
instruments and materials used under physical identification.