ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE and TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE of ELECTRICAL and MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT of MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

LECTURE NOTE of
ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND DRIVES
(ECEG - 3282 )
 Introduction
☞ The dc machines are versatile and extensively used in industry.
☞ A wide variety of volt-ampere or torque-speed characteristics can be
obtained from various connections of the field winding.
☞ Dc machines can work as generators, motors & brakes.
☞ In the generator mode the machine is driven by a prime mover (such
as a steam turbine or a diesel engine) with the mechanical power
converted into electrical power.
☞ In the motor mode, the machine drives a mechanical load with the
electrical power supplied converted into mechanical power.
☞ In the brake mode, the machine decelerates on account of the power
supplied or dissipated by it and, therefore, produces a mechanical braking
action.
 Introduction
☞ There is almost no modern use of dc machines as generators.
☞ Presently, all the land based electrical power networks are a.c systems of
generation, transmission and distribution.
☞ No doubt, application like aircrafts, ships and road mounted vehicles
which are isolated from land based ac networks employ dc sources
including dc generators and secondary batteries for power supply
☞ but the modern trend is to use ac generators with the dc supply being
obtained by rectification with the help of static power rectifiers.
 Introduction
☞ Apart from dc generators, the dc motors are finding increasing
applications, especially where large magnitude and precisely controlled
torque is required.
☞ Such motors are used in rolling mills, in overhead cranes and for traction
purpose like in forklift trucks, electric vehicles, and electric trains.
☞ They are also used in portable machine tools supplied from batteries, in
automotive vehicles as starter motors, blower motors and in many control
applications as actuators and as speed and position sensing device (tacho-
generators for speed sensing and servomotors for positioning and tracing).
 Construction of DC Machines
☞ The dc machines used for industrial applications have essentially three
major parts:
a) Field system (stator); b) Armature (Rotor) and c) commutator

1. shaft; 1. main-pole field

2. end-bearings; winding;
3. Commutator; 2. frame;
4. brushes; 3. end-shield;
5. armature; 4. ventilator;
6. main-pole; 5. basement;
6. bearings

Figure cut-away view of DC machines

 Field System
☞ The field system is located on the stationary
part of the machine called stator.
☞ The field system is designated for producing
magnetic flux and, therefore, provides the
necessary excitation for operation of machine
☞ The main flux Φ paths which starts from a
North Pole, crosses the air gap and then travels
down to the armature core. There, it divides
into two equal (Φ/2) halves, each half enter the
nearby South Pole so as to complete the flux.
Each flux line crosses the air-gap twice.
☞ Some flux lines may not enter the armature;
this flux, called the leakage flux. Figure Flux paths in a 6-pole dc machines
 Field System
☞ The stator of dc machines comprises of
1. Main poles: These poles are designed to produce the main magnetic flux
The pole shoes support the field coils placed on the pole body and also spread the
total flux over a greater area, thereby reduce the air gap reluctance and giving the
desired flux distribution to limit saturation in the teeth of the armature. ) (R=l/(μ∙A))
2. Frame: These provide support for the machine. In many machines the frame
is also a part of the magnetic circuit.
The Frame or Yoke in addition to being a part of a magnetic circuit serves as
mechanical support for entire assembly.
3. Interpoles: These poles are designed to improve commutation conditions to
ensure sparkles operation of machine.

Figure Main-pole
 Armature
☞ The armature is the rotating part (rotor) of the dc machine where the process of
electromechanical energy conversion takes pace.
☞ The armature is a cylindrical body, which rotates between the magnetic poles.
☞ The armature and the field system are separated from each other by an air gap. The
armature consists of:
☞ Armature core with slots and
☞ Armature winding accommodated in slots

Figure (a) Isometric view of armature;

(b) armature lamination
 Armature
☞ The purpose of the armature is to rotate the conductors in the uniform magnetic
field and to induce an alternating e.m.f in its winding.
☞ The armature core is normally made from high permeability silicon-steel
laminations of 0.4 to 0.5mm thickness, which are insulated from one another
by varnish or ceramic insulation.
☞ The use of high grade steel is to keep hysteresis loss low, which is due to cyclic
change of magnetization caused by rotation of the core in the magnetic field and
to reduce the eddy current in the core which are induced by the rotation of the
core in the magnetic field.
☞ In order to dissipate the heat produced by hysteresis and eddy current
losses etc., ventilating ducts are provided. By the fanning action of the
armature, air is drawn in through these ducts, thus producing efficient
ventilation.
☞ In the armature core of small diameters, circular holes are punched in the
center of the laminations for the shaft.
 Armature Winding
There are 2 types of winding: Lap and Wave winding

• Lap winding
A=P • Wave winding
The armature windings are divided into A=2
no. of sections equal to the no of poles
It is used in low current output
and high voltage.
2 brushes
 Commutator
☞ It is mounted on the rotor of a dc machine and it performs with help of
brushes a mechanical rectification of power: from ac to dc in case of generators
and dc to ac in case of motors.
☞ The ends of armature coils are connected to the commutator, which
together with the brushes rectifies the alternating e.m.f induced in the armature
coils and helps in the collection of current.
☞ It is cylindrically shaped and is placed at one end of the armature.
☞ The construction of the commutator is quite complicated because it involves the
combination of copper, iron and insulating materials.
☞ The connection of armature conductors to the commutator is made with the help
of risers. The risers connecting the segments to the armature coils are made of
copper strips for large machines. The outer end of the riser is shaped so as
to form clip into which the armature conductors are soldered.
 Commutator
☞ The commutator bars are built of a small wedge shaped segments of high
conductivity hard drawn copper insulated from each other.
☞ The commutator segments are assembled over a steel cylinder.
☞ V-shaped grove is provided at each end of the segments to prevent them from flying
away under the action of centrifugal force.
☞ Threaded steel rings are used to tighten the various components together.

Figure (a) cut-away view of commutator; Figure (b) commutator segment

 Brushes and Brush Holder
☞ Brushes are needed to collect the current from
the rotating commutator or to lead the current to
it.
☞ Normally brushes are made up of carbon and
graphite, so that while in contact with the
commutator, the commutator surface is not
spoiled.
☞ The brush is accommodated in the brush holder
where a spring presses it against the commutator with
pressure.
☞ A twisted flexible copper conductor called pigtail
securely fixed in to the brush is used to make the Figure Brush and brush holder
connection between the brush and its brush holder.
☞ The numbers of brush holders usually equal to the
number of main poles in dc machines.
Working Principle of DC Motor
 Classification of DC Machines
☞ A dc machine can work as an electromechanical energy converter only when its
field winding is excited with direct current, except for small dc machines
employing permanent magnets.
☞ According to the method of their field excitation dc generators are classified into
the following group:
Separately excited and Self excited
Separately excited
☞ The generator is not supply its own field excitation.
☞ It needs external DC source in order to bring them in to operation
☞ The field winding are energized from an independent external sources of dc
current. The voltage of the external dc source has no relation with the armature
voltage, i.e. the field winding energized from a separate supply, can be
designed for any convenient voltage.
 Separately Excited
Ia_gen If
If +
Ia_mot +
IL
+
Ra Ra
Vf Rf Vt Rf
+ Vt
-
- Ea Ea Ia
- +
-

Generated emf and Electromagnetic Torque

Vf  I f Rf Motor: Vt > Ea
Vt  Ea  I a Ra Generator: Vt < Ea

Voltage generated in the armature circuit due the flux of the stator field current
Ea  K a d  m Ka: design constant
16
 Separately Excited

Z = total number of armature conductors

= Number of slots ×Number of conductors per slot
P = Number of poles
a = number of parallel paths in armature

Electromagnetic Pem  Ea I a  Tem

torque for Generator
Te  K a d I a

17
 Separately Excited
 
☞ The back e.m.f. of DC motor is given by
multiplying by

= Total electrical power supplied to the Armature of the dc motor (armature input) and
= power wasted in the armature (armature copper loss).

☞ The difference between the armature input and the armature copper loss is equal to the
mechanical power developed by the armature of the motor.

☞ Hence, = mechanical power developed = , watts

☞ Torque,

18
 Self - Excited DC Generator
☞ The generator supplies its own field excitation
☞ But all dc motors must receive their excitation from an external
source;
☞ When the field winding is excited by its own armature, the machine
is said to be a self excited dc machine i.e. their field and armature
windings are connected.
☞ In these machines, the field poles must have a residual magnetism,
so that when the armature rotates, a residual voltage appears across
the brushes.
☞ Residual magnetism will be used to start generator operation, voltage
build up process (What does it mean?)
☞ Residual magnetism- retained magnetism by an electromagnet after
a magnetizing force is disconnected
 Self - Excited DC Generator
•☞  There are three types of dc generators namely;
i. Series wound
ii.Shunt wound and
iii.Compound wound.
☞ Note: Same arrangement is also employed for DC motors
 Series Excitation
☞ The field winding consists of a few turns of thick wire and is
connected in series with the armature.
☞ In other words, the series field current depends on the armature
current and in view of this; a series field may be called a current
operated field.

 ☞ Important relationships
 Shunt Excitation
☞ The field winding consists of a large number of turns of fine wire and
is connected in parallel (or in shunt) with the armature.
☞ Therefore the voltage across the armature terminals and the shunt
field is the same and it is for this reason that a shunt field may be
called voltage operated field.
 ☞ Important relationships
 Compound Excitation
☞ A compound excitation involves both series-exited winding and the
shunt-excited winding.
☞ From the view point of connections, a dc compound machine may
have short shunt connection or a long shunt connection.
☞ In short shunt connection the shunt field or voltage excited winding
is connected across the armature terminals.
☞ In long-shunt connection, the shunt field is connected across
☞ The series connection of the armature and series winding or
☞ The machine or line terminals.
☞ The choice between the two types depends on mechanical
considerations of connections or reversing switches.
 Compound Excitation
Short shunt Long shunt

 ☞ Important relationships  ☞ Important relationships

 Compound Excitation
☞ In a compound machine, the magnetic flux
produced by the shunt field is stronger than the
series field. When series field aids the shunt
field, so that the resultant air gap flux per pole
is increases, then the machine is said to be
cumulatively compounded.
☞ In Figure (a) the direction of arrows
corresponds to the direction magnetic flux
produced by shunt and series field windings. As
the two arrows are in the same direction.
☞ On the other hand if series field opposes the
shunt field so that the resultant air gap flux per
pole is decreased, the machine is called a
differentially compounded dc machine as
shown in Figure (b).
 Armature Reaction
☞ If a load is connected to the terminals of the dc generator, a current
will flow in its armature windings.
☞ This current flow will produce a magnetic field of its own, which
will distort the original magnetic field from the machine’s field
poles.
☞ This distortion of the magnetic flux in a machine as the load is
increased is called the armature reaction.
☞ The armature magnetic field has two effects:
1. It demagnetizes or weakens the main flux &
2. It cross –magnetizes or distorts it
 EMF EQUATION OF DC GENERATOR
•☞  Let = flux per pole in Weber
Z = total number of armature conductors
= Number of slots ×Number of conductors per slot
P = Number of poles
a = number of parallel paths in armature
N= armature rotation in revolutions per minute (rpm)
E = e.m.f induced in any parallel path in armature
Generated e.m.f, = e.m.f generated in one of the parallel path
Average e.m.f generated / conductor
Now, flux cut / conductor in one revolution, Wb
Number of revolution / second
 EMF EQUATION OF DC GENERATOR
•☞  Hence according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
e.m.f generated / conductor
 ☞Forwave winding
☞Number of parallel path a = 2 ☞For lap winding
☞Number of conductors (in series) in one path ☞Number of parallel path a = P
☞emf generated / path ☞Number of conductors (in series) in one path
☞emf generated / path

 ☞In general, the Generated emf

☞Where, a =2 for wave winding , a = P for lap winding

☞where, = is machine constant.

 Example 1

1. A dc shunt generator supplies a load of 10 kW at 220 V through feeders of

resistance 0.1Ω. The resistance of armature and shunt field windings is 0.05 Ω
and 100 Ω respectively.
Calculate, (i) terminal voltage, (ii) shunt field current and (iii) generated emf.
 Solution:
•Load
  supplied , = 10 kW
Voltage at the load terminals = 220 V
Thus load current,

Resistance of the feeders = 0.1 Ω

Voltage drop in the feeders = ×0.1=45.5 X 0.1= 4.55 V
Terminal voltage across the armature terminals, V′= 220 + 4.55=224.55 V
Shunt field current,

Generated e.m.f,
 Example 2

2. A 4-pole dc shunt generator with lap-connected armature supplies a load of 100

A at 200 V. The armature resistance is 0.1 Ωand the shunt field resistance is 80 Ω.
Find
i. total armature current,
ii. current per armature path, and
iii. emf generated.
Assume a brush contact drop of 2V.
 Solution:
•  Terminal voltage across the armature terminals, V= 200 V
i)
Shunt field resistance, = 80 Ω
Shunt field current,

Load current,
Armature current,
ii) Shunt generator is lap-wound, as such the number of parallel circuits in the armature
winding is equal to the number of poles.
Thus number of parallel circuits a = 4
Total armature current, = 102.5 A
Thus the current per armature path,
iii) Emf generated,
 Example 3

A short shunt compound generator supplies 200 A at 100 V. The resistance

of armature, series field and shunt field is respectively, 0.04, 0.03 and 60 Ω.
Find the emf generated.
 Solution:
• 
Terminal voltage across the load, 100 V
Load current, = 200 A
Resistance of series field winding = 0.03 Ω
Voltage drop in series field winding = = 200 ×0.03 = 6 V
Terminal voltage across the armature, V = + = 100 + 6 =106 V
Shunt field current,

Armature current,
generated E.m.f,
 Example 4

A long-shunt compound generator supplies a load at 110 V through a pair of

feeders of total resistance 0.04 Ω. The load consists of five motors, each taking
30A and a lighting load of 150 bulbs each of 60 W. The armature resistance is
0.03 Ω, series field resistance 0.04 Ω and shunt field resistance, 55 Ω.
Find, (i) load current,  ☞ Important relationships

(ii) terminal voltage, and

(iii) emf generated
 Solution:

•  Current drawn by each motor = 30 A

i)
Thus current drawn by five motors = 30 ×5 = 150 A
Total lighting load = 150 ×60 = 9000 W
Current taken by the lighting load = 82A
Hence, total load current = 150 + 82 = 232 A
ii) Voltage at the terminals of the load = 110 V
Total resistance of the feeders = 0.04 Ω
Current through the feeders = 232 A
Voltage drop in feeders = 232 ×0.04 = 9.28 V
Terminal voltage across the generator terminals,
V = + drop in feeders = 110 + 9.28 = 119.28 V
 Solution:
•   Resistance of shunt field, = 55 Ω
iii)
Current in shunt field winding,
Current in the armature winding,

Current in the series field winding,

Total resistance of armature and series field winding

generated E.m.f,
 COMMUTATION
☞ The armature conductors carry current in one
direction when they are under the influence of N-
pole and in opposite direction when they are under
S-pole. So when the conductors come under the
influence of the S-pole from the influence of
N-pole, the direction of flow of current in them is
reversed.
☞ This reversal of current in a coil will take place
when the two commutator segments to which the
coil is connected are being short circuited by brush.
☞ The process of reversal of current in a coil is
termed as commutation.
☞ The period during which the coil remains short-
circuited is called commutation period, Tc. This
commutation period is very small of the order of
0.001 to 0.003s.
 Interpoles
☞ The function of interpole is two fold:
i. The commutation e.m.f neutralizes the
reactance e.m.f thereby making commutation
sparkles. As interpoles carry armature current,
their commutating emf is proportional to
the armature current. This ensures automatic
neutralization of the reactance voltage, which
is also due to armature current.
ii. Another function of the interpoles is to
neutralize the cross-magnetize effect of
armature reaction. Hence, brushes are not
to be shifted from the original position.
Neutralization of cross- magnetization is
automatic and for all loads because both
are produced by the same armature current.
 Compensating Winding
☞ The effect of cross-magnetization can be neutralized using compensating
winding. These are conductors embedded in pole faces, connected in series
with the armature windings and carrying current in an opposite direction to
that flowing in the armature conductors under the pole face.
☞ Once cross-magnetization has been neutralized, the M.N.A (The magnetic
neutral axis) does not shift with the load and remains coincident with the
G.N.A. (geometrical neutral axis) at all loads.

Figure compensating windings

 Characteristics of DC Generators
•☞  The behavior of various types of dc generators can be studies by their
characteristic. The three most important characteristic curves of a dc generator
are:
1. Magnetization characteristic or open-circuit characteristic (O.C.C.):-
shows the relationship between the field current and the generated e.m.f at no
load and at constant given speed.
2. External characteristic:- shows the relationship between the terminal
voltage across the load and the current flowing in the external load circuit.
3. Internal characteristic:- shows the relationship between the e.m.f generated
(after allowing for demagnetizing effect of armature reaction) at load and the
armature current.
 Magnetization characteristic (O.C.C.)
•☞  The e.m.f generated in the armature winding of a dc machine under no load
condition is given by

☞ P, Z and a are constants for a particular generator, hence at constant given speed.

☞ Therefore, the generated e.m.f is directly proportional to the flux per pole (speed
being constant), which in turns depends upon the field current
☞ The characteristic curve plotted between generated e.m.f and the field current
at constant speed of rotation is called the magnetization curve or O.C.C.
of the dc generator.
 Magnetization characteristic (O.C.C.)
•☞  A potentiometer arrangement has been made to supply the field winding so that
the field current can be varied over a wide range by moving the contact
K.
☞ Ammeter indicate the field current and voltmeter indicate the generated emf.
The field current is increased in steps from zero to maximum and the
corresponding value of and are noted down at each step. On plotting these
results, a curve of the form shown in Figure is obtained.
 External Characteristics
☞ The external characteristics of a dc generator express the relationship
between the terminal voltage and the load current at a constant speed and
with the field current keeping the same as under the no load condition. The
shape of this curve depends upon:
i. The armature reaction
ii. voltage drop in the armature winding, series , inter pole and
compensating windings
iii. voltage drop at the brush contact ( 0.8- 1,0-V per brush ) and
iv. The drop in terminal voltage due to (i) and (ii) results in a decreased field
current which further reduces the induced e.m.f.
 Voltage Regulation
•☞  The change in output voltage of a generator from no-load to full-load
divided by the full load voltage, is called the voltage regulation.

☞It is an important parameter in the performance of generator by

providing an information that how constant the output voltage is with
load.
 Example

The open circuit characteristic of generator driven at 500 rpw is as

follows:
Field current, (A) 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
E.m.f , (V) 40 66 86 101 112 121 128 133

The machine is connected as shunt generator and driven at 500 rpm. Find
i) open circuit voltage, when the field circuit resistance is 94 Ω,
ii) the additional resistance required in the field circuit to reduce the e.m.f
to 110 V and
iii) critical value of shunt field resistance.
 Solution
The following figure shows the magnetization characteristic drawn as per
the given data. Line OA has been drawn as the field resistance line,
representing a resistance of 94 Ω. Any point on the field resistance line can
be found out corresponding to a particular value of field current,

For example, when the field current is 1.0 A,

 

voltage across the shunt field will be

Thus establishing a point B on the field resistance

line. The field resistance line is drawn joining the
point B with the origin O.

Figure Magnetization curve for example

 Solution
i) The field resistance line OA cuts the magnetization curve at the point A. Hence
the generator will develop an emf corresponding to the operating point A, which
is equal to OC or 126 V.
ii) Corresponding to the voltage of 110 V, a
 

horizontal line is drawn, which cuts the OCC at the

point D. Join the point D with the point O. The line
OD represents the field resistance line that would
generate a voltage of 110 V.
Hence to generate a voltage of 110 volts, the total
resistance of the shunt field circuit should be

Resistance of the shunt field winding, is 94 Ω. Thus

additional resistance in the shunt field circuit is
Figure Magnetization curve for example 116.7 – 94= 22.7 Ω
 Solution

iii) Critical value of shunt field resistance is

 

obtained by drawing a tangent from the origin to the

initial portion of the magnetization curve. Line DE
represents the critical resistance of the shunt field.
Thus critical resistance,

Figure Magnetization curve for example

Interaction of Prime-mover, DC Generator and Load
Interaction of the DC Motor and Mechanical Load
 DC Motor Characteristics
•☞  The 3 Important characteristic curves of dc motors are:
1. Torque-Armature Current Characteristic
☞ This characteristic curve gives relation between mechanical
torque T and armature current. This is known as electrical
characteristic.
2. Speed-Armature Current Characteristic
☞ This characteristic curve gives relation between speed N and armature
current
3. Speed-Torque Characteristic
☞ This characteristic curve gives relation between speed N and
mechanical torque T. This is also known as mechanical
characteristics.
 Example
•The
  armature of a 6 pole, 6 circuit dc shunt motor takes 300 A at the speed
of 400 revolutions per minute. The flux per pole is Wb. The number of
armature turns is 500. The torque lost in windage, friction and iron
losses can be assumed as 2.5 per cent.
Calculate (i) the torque developed by the armature,
(ii) shaft torque and
(iii) shaft power in kW.
 Solution
•The
  torque developed by the armature of a dc motor is given by

Number of poles of shunt motor, P = 6

Armature winding has 6 circuits, thus, A = 6
Armature current, = 300 A
Number of armature turns = 500
Thus total conductors on the armature, Z = 2 ×500 = 1000
Flux per pole, = Wb
Substituting these values in the above equation , Armature torque,
 Solution
•Torque
  lost in windage, friction and iron losses

Thus, shaft torque,

Shaft power,
 Applications:
☞ Shunt motors being constant speed motors, are best suited for:
Blowers and fans
Centrifugal and reciprocating pumps
Lathe machines
Machine tools
Milling machines
Drilling machines
 Applications:
☞ Series motors are used where large starting torque is required:
Cranes
Hoists , Elevators
Trolleys
Conveyors
Electric locomotives
 Applications:
☞ The cumulative compound motor develops a high torque with increase of
load.
☞ It also has a definite speed of no load, so does not run away when the
load is removed
Rolling mills
Punches
Shears
Heavy planers
Elevators
☞ Differential compound motor is seldom used.
 Quiz ( 5%)
The armature of a 4-pole dc shunt motor has a lap winding
accommodated is 60 slots, each containing 20 conductors. If the useful flux
per pole be 23 mWb, calculate the total torque developed in Newton
meters when the armature current is 50 A.
 Solution
•Flux
  per pole, = 23 mWb = 0.023 Wb
Total number of armature conductors, Z = 60 ×20 =1200
Number of poles, P=4
Armature current, = 50 A
Since armature has lap winding, Number of parallel paths, A=P=4
Total torque developed,