VARIOUS TRANSMISSION AND

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
Dr. Muhammad Akmal
VARIOUS TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEMS IN ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM

Different types of power Distribution and Transmission system

are going to be discussed. Later a comparison between different
power transmission systems is made. A number of examples are
given for better understanding of calculation of different
parameter of distribution and transmission system.
Though in practice 3-phase 3-wire AC system is universally
used for transmission and 3-phase 4-wire AC system is used for
distribution of electric power but for special purposes other
systems may also be used. The various systems of power
transmission distribution are:
VARIOUS TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEMS IN ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM

a) DC Systems:

I. DC two-wire system.
II. DC two-wire system with midpoint earthed.
III. DC three- wire system.

b) Single Phase AC Systems:

I. Single-phase two-wire system.

II. Single-phase two-wire system with mid point earthed.
III. Single-phase three-wire system.
 
 VARIOUS TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEMS IN ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM

c) Two-Phase AC Systems:

I. Two-phase four-wire system.

II. Two phase three-wire system.
 
d) Three Phase AC Systems:
I. Three-phase 3-wire system.
II. Three-phase 4-wire system.
 VARIOUS TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS IN
ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM

From such a big list of possible systems of transmission it is difficult

to decide the best system without making comparison. The basis for
comparison between the various systems power transmission is
usually economy. Since in a transmission system, the cost of the
conductor material accounts for a major part of the total cost, the best
system for transmission of electrical power is that for which the
volume of conductor material required is minimum. Thus the
requirement of volume of conductor material forms the basis of
comparison between various systems.
VARIOUS TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEMS IN ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM

In making comparison of the volume of conductor material

required for various transmission systems, the basis will be
the equal maximum stress on the dielectric. This is because
the voltage is only limited by the problem of insulating the
conductors against disruptive discharge.
For comparing the amount of conductor material required for
different systems two cases arise:
 VARIOUS TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEMS IN ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM

I. When overhead system is employed for transmission of

power. In overhead system the conductors are insulated from
the x-arms and supporting towers and as the towers and x-
arms are earthed so the maximum voltage between each
conductor and earth forms the basis of comparison of
volume of conductor material required.
 VARIOUS TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEMS IN ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM

II When underground cables are employed for transmission of

power. In underground cables the maximum disruptive stress
is between the two conductors of the cable, so the maximum
voltage between conductors forms the basis of comparison
of volume of conductor material required.
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS

The assumptions made for comparison are:

 
I. In all cases power to be transmitted is same (say, P watts).
II. The distance over which the power is to be transmitted is
same (say l).
III. The line losses are same (say, W watts).
IV. The maximum voltage to earth is same (say, V m volts).
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS

DC Systems

DC 2-Wire System with One Conductor Earthed

This system consists of two wires, one wire is called positive

outer taking the current away from the generator while the
second wire is called negative outer and is earthed. The load is
connected between the two wires, as shown in Figure 5.1.
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS

DC Systems

DC 2-Wire System with One Conductor Earthed

Figure 5.1 DC 2-Wire System with One Conductor

Earthed.
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS
DC Systems

DC 2-Wire System with One Conductor Earthed

Maximum voltage between conductors = Vm volts

Power to be transmitted = P = Vm I1 watts

 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS

DC Systems

DC 2-Wire System with One Conductor Earthed

This system is usually formed the basis for comparison with other
systems. Thus the volume of conductor material required in this
system shall be taken as the basic quantity.
 
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS
DC Systems

DC Two-Wire System with Mid Point Earthed

 
In this system there are two wires namely positive outer and
negative outer. Currents in the positive and negative outers are I 1
and I2 respectively and the mid-point is earthed. By this method,
we can increase the voltage of the system and can decrease the
diameter of the conductor which reduces the cost. So this system
can only be used for power loads.

This system is shown in Figure 5.2.

 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS

DC Systems

DC Two-Wire System with Mid Point Earthed

 

Figure 5.2 DC Two-Wire System with Mid Point Earthed.

 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS
DC Systems

DC Two-Wire System with Mid Point Earthed 

 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS
DC Systems

DC Two-Wire System with Mid Point Earthed

 
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS

DC Systems

DC Two-Wire System with Mid Point Earthed

 
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS

DC Systems

DC Two-Wire System with Mid Point Earthed

Hence volume of conductor material required is one-fourth of that

required in two-wire dc system with one conductor earthed.

 
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS
DC Systems

DC Three-Wire System

This system consists of two outer wires and a neutral wire which is
grounded at the generator end. The load is connected either
between any outer and neutral wire or between the two outers. If
the load is balanced, no current flows through the neutral wire but
practically the neutral wire carries some amount of current so the
diameter of the neutral wire is selected one-half of the diameter of
the outer wires. Since we have two different voltage levels, power
loads as well as lightening loads can be connected to this system.
This system is shown in Figure 5.3. 
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS
DC Systems

DC Three-Wire System 

Figure 5.3 DC Three-Wire System.

 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS
DC Systems

DC Three-Wire System  
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS
DC Systems

DC Three-Wire System 
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS

Single phase Two-Wire AC System with One Conductor

Earthed

Single Phase AC Systems

This is a two wire system. One wire is called live wire while
the second wire which is earthed is called neutral wire. In this
case supply is taken from the secondary side of the distribution
transformer. This system is shown in Figure 5.4.
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS

Single phase Two-Wire AC System with One Conductor

Earthed

Single Phase AC Systems

Figure 5.4 Single phase Two-Wire AC System with One

Conductor Earthed.
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS

Single phase Two-Wire AC System with One Conductor

Earthed

Single Phase AC Systems

 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS

Single phase Two-Wire AC System with One Conductor

Earthed
Single Phase AC Systems
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS
Single phase Two-Wire AC System with One Conductor
Earthed

Single Phase AC Systems

Hence volume of conductor material required in this system is

2/cos2φ times of that required in 2-wire dc system with one
conductor earthed.

Single Phase Two- Wire AC System with Mid Point Earthed

This is a two wire system consisting in which mid-point of the
secondary winding is earthed, as shown in Figure 5.5.
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS

Single Phase Two- Wire AC System with Mid Point Earthed

Single Phase AC Systems

Figure 5.5 Single phase Two-Wire AC System with One

Conductor Earthed.
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS

Single Phase Two- Wire AC System with Mid Point Earthed

Single Phase AC Systems
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS

Single Phase Two- Wire AC System with Mid Point Earthed

Single Phase AC Systems
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS

Single Phase Two- Wire AC System with Mid Point Earthed

Single Phase AC Systems
 

Hence volume of conductor material required in this system is

0.5/cos2φ times of that required in 2-wire DC system with one
conductor earthed.
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS
Single Phase Three-Wire AC System

Single Phase AC Systems

In this system we have three wires, two live wires and

one neutral wire. The neutral wire is connected at the
mid-point of the secondary and is earthed. In this way,
two system voltages are obtained. Power loads are
connected to the outer wires while lightening loads are
connected to one of the live wire and neutral. This
system is shown in Figure 5.6.

 
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS
Single Phase Three-Wire AC System
Single Phase AC Systems 

Figure 5.6 Single Phase Three-Wire AC System.

 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS
Single Phase Three-Wire AC System

Single Phase AC Systems 

 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS
Single Phase Three-Wire AC System

Single Phase AC Systems

 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS
Single Phase Three-Wire AC System

Single Phase AC Systems

 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS

3-Phase 3-Wire AC System

3-Phase AC Systems

Three-phase systems may be delta-connected or star-connected

whose star point is usually earthed. In case of star connection,
VP in the voltage of each phase while VL is the voltage between
the lines. This system is shown in Figure 5.7. 
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS

3-Phase 3-Wire AC System

 
3-Phase AC Systems

Figure 5.7 3-Phase 3-Wire AC System.

 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS

3-Phase 3-Wire AC System

3-Phase AC Systems 
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS

3-Phase 3-Wire AC System

3-Phase AC Systems 
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS
3-Phase 3-Wire AC System

3-Phase AC Systems
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS

3-Phase AC Systems

3-Phase 3-Wire AC System

Hence volume of conductor material required in this system is

0.5/cos2φ times of that required in two-wire DC system with one
conductor earthed.
 
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS

3-Phase 4-Wire AC System

In this system, the neutral wire is taken from the star point of the
star-connection and is of half the cross-section of the line
conductors. If VP is the voltage of each winding, then the line
voltage √3VP. Single-phase residential lighting loads or single
phase motors are connected between the neutral and any one of the
live wires. These loads are connected symmetrically so that live
wires are loaded equally. Hence, the resultant current in the neutral
wire is zero or at least minimum. Three-phase induction motors
requiring higher voltages are put across the lines directly. This
system is shown in Figure 5.8.
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS

3-Phase 4-Wire AC System 

Figure 5.8 3-Phase 4-Wire AC System.

 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS
3-Phase 4-Wire AC System 
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS

3-Phase 4-Wire AC System 

Comparison of Cost of Conductors for Underground
Systems

The assumptions made for comparison are:

i. In all cases the power to be transmitted is same (say, P watts).

ii. The distance over which the power is to be transmitted is same
(say, l).
iii. The line losses are same (say, W watts).
iv. The maximum voltage between two conductors is same (say,
Vm volts).
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR UNDERGROUND SYSTEMS
DC Systems

DC Two-Wire System  
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR UNDERGROUND SYSTEMS

DC Two-Wire System with Mid Point Earthed

This system is the same as a 2-wire DC system so volume of

conductor material required for this system is the same as that in
the 2-wire DC system.

 
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR UNDERGROUND SYSTEMS

DC Two-Wire System with Mid Point Earthed

Figure 5.10 DC Two-Wire System With Mid Point Earthed.

 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR UNDERGROUND SYSTEMS

DC Two-Wire System with Mid Point Earthed

 
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS
DC Two-Wire System with Mid Point Earthed

 
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR UNDERGROUND SYSTEMS

DC Three-Wire System

Assuming balanced load, the current through the neutral or mid wire is
zero.
Maximum voltage between outers = Vm volts
 
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR UNDERGROUND SYSTEMS

DC Three-Wire System 

Figure 5.11 DC Three-Wire System.

 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR UNDERGROUND SYSTEMS

DC Three-Wire System 
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR UNDERGROUND SYSTEMS

DC Three-Wire System 
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR UNDERGROUND SYSTEMS
Single-Phase AC Systems

AC Single-Phase Two-Wire System 

Figure 5.12 Single-Phase AC system.

 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR UNDERGROUND SYSTEMS
Single-Phase AC Systems

AC Single-Phase Two-Wire System 

 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR UNDERGROUND SYSTEMS
Single-Phase AC Systems

AC Single-Phase Two-Wire System 

 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR UNDERGROUND SYSTEMS
Single-Phase AC Systems

AC Single-Phase Two-Wire System 

 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR UNDERGROUND SYSTEMS

AC Single-Phase Two- Wire System with Mid Point

Earthed

This system is the same as a 2-wire single phase ac system so

volume of conductor material required in this case is also 2/cos 2φ
times of that required in a two-wire DC system.
 
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR UNDERGROUND SYSTEMS

AC Single-Phase Two- Wire System with Mid Point

Earthed 

Figure 5.13 AC Single-Phase Two- Wire System With Mid Point Earthed.
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR UNDERGROUND SYSTEMS

AC Single-Phase Three-Wire System

 
Assuming balanced load, the system reduces to a single phase 2-
wire AC system except that a neutral conductor of half the x-
section is provided in addition. So volume of conductor material
required in this case is 2.5/cos2φ of that required in a two-wire dc
system.
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR UNDERGROUND SYSTEMS

AC Single-Phase Three-Wire System

Figure 5.14 AC Single-Phase Three-Wire System.

 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR UNDERGROUND SYSTEMS
3-Phase AC Systems

AC Three-Phase Three-Wire System

 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR UNDERGROUND SYSTEMS
3-Phase AC Systems

AC Three-Phase Three-Wire System

 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS
3-Phase AC Systems

AC Three-Phase Three-Wire System

Hence volume of conductor material required in this case is

1.5/cos2φ times of that required in case of a two-wire DC system.
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR UNDERGROUND SYSTEMS

AC Three-Phase Four-Wire System

Assuming balanced load, this system is reduced to a 3-phase AC

system except that an additional wire, called the neutral wire is
provided of the half the cross-section of that either outer. The
volume of conductor material required in this system is 1.75/cos2φ
times of that required in case of a 2-wire DC system.
 COMPARISON OF COST OF CONDUCTORS
FOR OVERHEAD SYSTEMS

AC Three-Phase Four-Wire System

 RESULTS OF COMPARISON OF
TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
 The results obtained above are summarized as below:
 RESULTS OF COMPARISON OF
TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

From the above table it is obvious that for transmission DC

system is an ideal one from economic point of view particularly
when it is remembered that the power factor of an AC system is
usually considerably less than unity.
 
Two-phase three-wire system is obviously quite unsuitable for
long distance transmission and needs no further consideration.
 RESULTS OF COMPARISON OF
TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

Among the remaining AC systems for overhead systems there

is no difference in single phase, 2-wire and three-phase, 3-wire
systems and for underground systems there is a decided saving
in conductor material with the three phase system. Considering
other factors such as efficiency of operation and convenience
three-phase three-wire system is best. But normally three-phase
four wire system is employed because we are available with
two voltage levels.
 COMPARISON BETWEEN AC AND DC
SUPPLY SYSTEMS

 1- Voltage Transformation

 
AC Voltages can be stepped up and down with the help of power
transformers. Stepping up of voltage level has two main
advantages, 

Size of the conductor is reduced

Heating losses (I2R) losses are reduced. 

But DC Voltages cannot be stepped up and down economically.

Transformer substations are very cheap compared with DC
(Rectifier) substations.
 COMPARISON BETWEEN AC AND DC
SUPPLY SYSTEMS

2. Skin Effect
 
In AC systems, more current tends to flow through the outer
periphery of the conductor due to unequal distribution of flux
which increases the effective resistance of the line. This
phenomenon is called Skin Effect. Skin Effect is only found in
AC systems and is absent in DC systems.
 
 COMPARISON BETWEEN AC AND DC
SUPPLY SYSTEMS

3. Charging Current
 
No charging or discharging currents are found in DC systems.
But in AC systems, even if we don’t load the line, it draws some
charging current due to inherent capacitance of line.
 
4. Voltage Regulation
 
DC has better voltage regulation than AC because of absence of
XL and XC. Inductance and capacitance of line increases the
voltage regulation in case of AC. 
 COMPARISON BETWEEN AC AND DC
SUPPLY SYSTEMS

5. Stability of the Line

 
Problem of unstability of transmission system is absent which
occurs due to excessive voltage drop.
 COMPARISON BETWEEN AC AND DC
SUPPLY SYSTEMS

 6. Corona Limit

 
Corona limit is higher with DC than with AC.
 
7. Limited Output
 
Output in case of DC generator is limited due to the presence of
commutator which gets punctured at high voltage but no such
problem in AC generator.
 
 COMPARISON BETWEEN AC AND DC
SUPPLY SYSTEMS

8. Insulation Requirements
 
In case of DC system, insulation requirements are less as
compared with AC systems.
 CHOICE OF WORKING VOLTAGE FOR
TRANSMISSION

 
Before discussing the method of determination of the most
economical working voltage for transmission we will discuss
here the, advantages and limitations of high voltage transmission.
The advantages of adopting high voltage for transmission are
given below:
 
 CHOICE OF WORKING VOLTAGE FOR
TRANSMISSION

i. With the increase in transmission voltage the size of the

conductor (area of x-section of the core car­rying the
current) is reduced. This further reduces the cost of the
supporting structure materials.
ii. With the increase in transmission voltage, line current is
reduced which results in reduction of line losses.
iii. With the increase in transmission voltage reduction in line
losses results in higher efficiency.
iv. Due to low current at high transmission voltage, the
voltage drop in the lines is low. This leads to better voltage
regulation.
 CHOICE OF WORKING VOLTAGE FOR
TRANSMISSION
 
However, where there are several advantages of high voltage for
transmission, there are some limitations also which are given below:
 
a. With the increase in voltage of transmission, the insulation
required between the conductors and the earthed tower
increases. This increases the cost of line supports.
b. With the increase in voltage of transmission, more clearance is
required between conductors and ground. Hence higher
towers are required.
c. With the increase in voltage of transmission, more distance is
required between the conductors. Therefore, longer cross-
arms are required.
 CHOICE OF WORKING VOLTAGE FOR
TRANSMISSION

Figure 5.17 Transmission voltage as function of capital cost.

 CHOICE OF WORKING VOLTAGE FOR
TRANSMISSION

The method of finding the optimum voltage is to choose a certain

standard voltage and calculate the cost of (i) transformers to be
used at the generating and receiving stations (ii) switchgear
consisting of isolators, bus-bars, circuit breakers, relays etc (iii)
lightning arresters (iv) insulators, (v) supports including the
cross-arms, other fittings (vi) conductors and cost of erection for
the given voltage of generation given power to be transmitted and
given length of the transmission system. The total sum of all the
costs gives the total capital cost of transmission. Thus for various
standard voltages the total capital cost is worked out and a curve
of capital cost against the transmission voltage is plotted.
 CHOICE OF WORKING VOLTAGE FOR
TRANSMISSION

The curve plotted is of the form shown in Figure 5.17. From the
curve it is observed that the optimum voltage from economy
point of view will be voltage corresponding to point A on the
curve. In fact higher voltage would be chosen as large working
voltage, power loss and voltage drop are reduced, load can be
increased if required and control becomes easier.
 
In practice it is not possible to determine the economic voltage
by the method explained above. To avoid the complications and
labour, an empirical formula for determining the optimum
voltage for lines more than 30 km long is given as,
 CHOICE OF WORKING VOLTAGE FOR
TRANSMISSION

As a rough guide the voltage for transmission is chosen as 625

volts per km though in practice the voltage per km varies from
about 400 to 900 volts for longer to shorter distances. The choice
is usually limited in practice by the requirement of
standardization and for satisfactory regulation without excessive
equipment cost.
 
The voltages normally adopted for transmission are given below.
CHOICE OF WORKING VOLTAGE FOR
TRANSMISSION
Example 5.1: A 3-phase, 4-wire system is used for lighting.
Compare the amount of conductor material required with that
needed for a 2-wire direct current system with the same lamp
voltage. Assume the same losses and balanced load. The neutral
is one-half the x-section of one the respective outers.

Solution:
 
Let the lighting load to be supplied be P watts at voltage V volts
(between line and neutral in case of 3-phase, 4-wire system) and
line losses be W watts in both of the cases:
Example 5.2: An existing single phase AC system comprising
of two overhead conductors is to be converted into a 3-phase,
3-wire system by providing an additional conductor or same
size. Calculate the percentage or additional load that can be
transmitted by the three-phase system if the operating line
voltage and percentage line losses remain the same in both
the systems.
 
Solution: Let the operating line voltage and power factor in both
the systems be V volts and respectively. If I1 is single phase
current, I2 is the three-phase current and R is the resistance of
each conductor, then in single phase ac system
Example 5.3: An existing DC three-wire system is to be
converted to a 3-phase 4-wire ac system by the addition of
another conductor equal in x-section to each outer of the dc
system. Assuming the percentage copper loss and voltage at
the consumer’s terminals are to remain same in both
systems, find the additional percentage load that can be
supplied in two cases. Assume balanced load in both cases
and unity power factor in case of AC system.
 
Solution: Let the supply and load voltages to neutral be VS and
VL volts respectively and resistance of each conductor be R
ohms.
Example 5.4: A 3-wire dc system is converted to a 4-wire 3-
phase AC system by the addition of another wire equal in
section to one of the outers. For the same effective voltages
between outers and neutral at the consumer’s terminals and
the same percentage loss, find the percentage of additional
load that can be supplied. Assume balanced load and the ac
system a power factor of 0.9.
 
Solution: Let the voltage between outer and neutral be V volts in
both of the cases and currents in 3- wire DC system and 3-phase,
4-wire system I1 and I2 respectively.