Power Distribution

Power Factor Improvement

Dr. Muhammad Akmal

POWER FACTOR

The power factor of a circuit implies that how efficiently power is being
consumed or utilized in the circuit. The greater the power factor of a
circuit, greater is the ability of the circuit to utilize apparent power.
Thus if the power factor is 0.5, it means that 50% of the power is
being utilized. However, it is desired that power factor of a circuit to be
as close to unity as possible.

The cosine of the angle between voltage and current in an ac circuit is

also known as power factor (cos φ).

2
POWER FACTOR

The Power factor of an alternating circuit is defined as ratio of active

power to the apparent power.

Mathematically,

kW
Power Factor = cos  
kVA

Where

kW = Active Power delivered or absorbed by the circuit

kVA = Apparent Power of the circuit

3
POWER FACTOR

The ratio of resistance to the impedance is also known as power factor.

Alternatively, Power Factor = R / Z

Where

R = Resistance of the circuit.

Z = Impedence of the circuit.

Fig:1 shows an R-L series circuit connected with a power source of

voltage V.

4
CONCEPT OF ACTIVE POWER AND REACTIVE POWER

Figure:1 A sinusoidal voltage source switched on to RL network.

5
CONCEPT OF ACTIVE POWER AND REACTIVE POWER

Figure:2 Power Triangle for inductive load.

6
CONCEPT OF ACTIVE POWER AND REACTIVE POWER

In an ac circuit, there is generally a phase difference between voltage

and current. In an inductive circuit, the current lags behind the applied
voltage and the power factor of the circuit is referred to as lagging. In a
capacitive circuit the current leads the applied voltage and-therefore,
the power factor of the circuit is said to be leading.

Consider an inductive circuit, shown in Fig:1, in which a current I drawn

from the supply mains is lagging behind the supply voltage V by an
angle ø, known as phase angle.

7
CONCEPT OF ACTIVE POWER AND REACTIVE POWER

The current I can be resolved into two

components, one in phase with the
voltage phasor and the other
perpendicular to it. The component in
phase with the voltage phasor, I cos φ is
called the in­phase or active component
of current, and the one perpendicular to
the voltage phasor, I sin φ is called the
out of phase or wattless or reactive
component of current, shown in Fig:3
8
CONCEPT OF ACTIVE POWER AND REACTIVE POWER

Figure:3 Phasor Diagram for an inductive network.

9
CONCEPT OF ACTIVE POWER AND REACTIVE POWER

Active Power
If all these components are multiplied by voltage V, the product of

voltage V and in-phase component of current I cos φ i.e.

VI cos φ will represent the active power of the circuit in watts
or KW. It is also known as true or real power of the circuit.

Active power is defined as the power consumed in the resistance of the

circuit and is denoted by P.

P = VI cos φ
Active power is used to produce torque in motors and supply heat,
mechanical power and light etc. It is consumed in the circuit and
cannot be recovered.
10
CONCEPT OF ACTIVE POWER AND REACTIVE POWER

Reactive Power

The product of voltage V and the component of current perpendicular

to applied voltage I sin ø i.e. V I sinø will represent the
reactive power in VARs or KVARs.

Reactive power is defined as the power developed across the

inductance of the circuit to set up ac magnetic field in the circuit.

Q = VI sin φ
Note that power consumed in inductor and capacitor is zero because
all the power received from the source in one-quarter cycle is returned
to the source in the next one-quarter cycle. This circulating power does
no useful work in the circuit.
11
CONCEPT OF ACTIVE POWER AND REACTIVE POWER

Apparent Power

The product of voltage V and current I i.e. VxI will represent the
apparent power in volt-amperes or KVA denoted by S.
S = P ± jQ

Active power should be as large as possible because it is this

component, which does useful work in the circuit. This is possible only
reactive component of power is small which results ultimately in high
power factor i.e.
when φ = 0
sin φ = 0 but cos φ = 1
when φ = 90
sin φ = 1 but cos φ = 0

12
 DISADVANTAGES OF LOW POWER FACTOR

If load P is to be supplied at terminal voltage V and at power factor cos

ø by a 1-phase system then load current is given by

P  VI cos 
P
 I cos 
V
K  I cos 
or
1
I
cos 
i.e I is inversely proportional to cos

13
DISADVANTAGES OF LOW POWER FACTOR

Thus, P and V being constant, the

load current I is inversely
proportional to power factor, cos φ
i.e. lower the power factor, higher
the current and vice-versa. The
higher current due to poor power
factor affects the system and results
in following disadvantages.
14
DISADVANTAGES OF LOW POWER FACTOR

High Line Losses

Line Losses = I 2 R
Line Losses  I 2
1
or Line Losses 
cos 2

i.e. Line Losses are inversely proportional to square of cos φ

So, if cosø = 0.5, line losses will be (1/0.5)x(1/0.5)=4 times as

compared to situation when cos ø = 1.

15
DISADVANTAGES OF LOW POWER FACTOR

High Voltage Drop

VOLTAGE DROP=IZ
VOLTAGE DROP IS PROPORTIONAL 1/ cos φ.

Thus, voltage drop is inversely proportional so if cos φ = 0.5, line

losses will be 2 times as compared to situation when cos φ = 1

16
DISADVANTAGES OF LOW POWER FACTOR

High KVA Rating of the Generators and

Transformers
Let P = 1000 kW
V = 400 V
cos φ = 0.5 lagging

kW
Size of the plant to supply this power =
cos

= 1000 / 0.5 = 2000 kVA

If the power factor is improved to unity,

Size of the plant to supply this power = KVA = kW / cos φ
= 1000 / 1.0 = 1000 kVA

17
DISADVANTAGES OF LOW POWER FACTOR

High KVA Rating of the Generators and

Transformers

Thus by improving the power factor,

the kVA demand of the system
becomes less, therefore, small
generators and transformers are
required to deliver same load at high
power factor.
18
DISADVANTAGES OF LOW POWER FACTOR

Small Cross-section Area of the Conductor

For the same power to be transmitted but at low

power factor, the transmission line or
distributor or cable has to carry more current.
The size of the conductor will have to be
increased if current density in the line is to be
kept constant. Thus more conductor material is
required for transmission lines, distributors
and cables to deliver the same load but at low
power factor.
19
DISADVANTAGES OF LOW POWER FACTOR
Small Cross-section Area of the Conductor

Thus we see that the low power factor leads to

a high capital cost for the alternators,
switchgears, transformers, transmission lines,
distributors and cables etc. Keeping in view the
various drawbacks associated with the low
power factor, the power suppliers insist on a
power factor of 0.8 or above for industrial
establishments. The power tariffs are devised
to penalize the consumers with low lagging
power factor and to encourage them to install
power factor correction devices or equipment.
20
CAUSES OF LOW POWER FACTOR

a) All induction motors and transformers operate at lagging power

factor. The power factor of induction motors and transformers is very
poor when lightly loaded (especially in night hours), so energy
consumed is very small. In this case, there will be loss to supply
company. For example an induction motor has a reasonable
higher power of 0.85 at full load, 0.8 at 75% of full- load, 0.7 at half
load, 0.5 at 25% of full-load and as low as 0.1 on no-load.

b) Arc lamps and electric discharge lamps operate at low lagging

power factor.

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CAUSES OF LOW POWER FACTOR

c) The power factor, at which motors operate, falls due to improper

maintenance and repairs of motors. In repaired motors, less wire
is sometimes used than originally wound motors, therefore, in
such motors leakage of magnetic flux increases and power
factor of the motor decreases.

d) Industrial heating furnaces such as arc and induction furnaces

operate on very lagging power factor.

22
 POWER FACTOR AND LOADS

The average power factors of some of the common appliances are given below:

Type of load Power factor Type of load Power factor

Incandescent lamps 0.98 - 1.0 Induction heaters 0.85

Fluorescent lamps 0.6 - 0.8 Resistance furnaces 0.6 - 0.9
Neon lamps used for 0.4 - 0.5 Arc furnaces 0.85
advertisements ­
Arc lamps used in 0.3 - 0.7 Induction furnaces 0.6
cinemas Fans .
Induction motors 0.5 - 0.85 Arc welders 0.3 - 0.4
Fractional kW motors 0.4 - 0.75 Resistance welders 0.4 - 0.75

23
 SOME BASIC DEFINITIONS REGARDING CAPACITORS

Capacitor element: an invisible part of a capacitor consisting of electrodes

separated by a dielectric material.

Capacitor unit: an assembly of one or more capacitor element in a single

container with terminals brought out.

Capacitor segment: a single-phase group of capacitor units with protection

and control system.

Capacitor module: a three-phase group of capacitor segments.

Capacitor bank: a total assembly of capacitor modules electrically connected

to each other.

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 METHODS OF POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

The low power factor is due to the inductive nature of the load i.e. a device
that draws lagging reactive power. If a device drawing leading reactive power
is connected in parallel with the inductive load, then the lagging reactive
power of the load will be partly neutralized, resulting in improvement of the
power factor of the system.

Therefore, when such a device is connected across the load, which takes
leading reactive power such as static capacitors, synchronous machines or
synchronous condensers, the leading reactive component of current drawn
by power factor correcting device neutralizes the lagging reactive component
of current drawn by the load partly or completely.

Power factor of the system will approach unity when lagging reactive
component of load current is completely neutralized by the leading reactive
component of current drawn by power factor correcting device.

25
 METHODS OF POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

Figure:4 Power Factor Improvement.

Mainly there are three methods to improve the power factor an inductive
load,

(i) By use of Static Capacitor

(ii) By use of Synchronous Motors
(iii) By use of Phase Advancers 26
 METHODS OF POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT
1- By Using Static Capacitor

Power factor can be improved by connecting the capacitors in parallel with

the load operating at lagging power factor such as induction motors,
fluorescent tubes, etc.

Advantages

(a) Small losses

(b) High efficiency (approximately 99.6%).
(c) Low initial cost
(d) Low maintenance due to absence of rotating parts.
(e) Easy installation being lighter in weight.

27
 METHODS OF POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

1- By Using Static Capacitor

Disadvantages
a. Short service life
b. Getting damaged on overvoltage
c. Uneconomical repair

In case of 3-phase loads capacitors can be connected either in star or

delta, as shown in Fig:5. These capacitors remain connected permanently
across the equipment and across the supply mains, whenever the
equipment is switched on.

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METHODS OF POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

1- By Using Static Capacitor

Figure:5 Connection of Capacitor Bank.

(a) Y- connected capacitors. (b) Δ - connected capacitors.

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 METHODS OF POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

1- By Using Static Capacitor

Power factor can also be improved by connecting

static capacitors in series with the line, as shown
in Fig:6. Capacitors connected in series with the
line neutralize the line reactance. The capacitors,
when connected in series with the line, are called
the series capacitors, and when connected in
parallel with the equipment, are called the shunt
capacitors.

Shunt capacitors are used in factories, plants and

also on transmission lines. 30
METHODS OF POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

1- By Using Static Capacitor

C

3-Phase
C

Figure:6 Series Capacitors.

Series capacitors are used on long transmission lines as they

provide automatic compensation with the variations in load.

31
 METHODS OF POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT
2- By Using Synchronous Machines

Synchronous machines are excited by DC and

controlling the field excitation, may control the
power factor. An over-excited synchronous motor
running on no load is called the synchronous
condenser or synchronous phase advancer and
behaves like a capacitor, the capacitive reactance
of which depends upon the motor excitation.
Power factor can be improved by using
synchronous condensers like shunt capacitors
connected across the supply.

32
METHODS OF POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

2- By Using Synchronous Machines

lM

FM V

FL F

Figure:7 Power Factor Improvement Using Synchronous Machines

33
 METHODS OF POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT
2- By Using Synchronous Machines

In phasor diagram Fig:7 phasor IL represents the

current draw by the industrial load, lagging behind
the applied voltage V by a large angle øL and
phasor IM represents the current drawn by the
synchronous condenser leading the applied
voltage V by the angle øm, The resultant current I is
the phasor sum of IL and IM and now angle of lag is
much smaller than θL. . Thus over­all power factor
is improved from cos øL to cos ø by the use of the
synchronous condenser. In this way the power
34
factor can be made unity even.
 METHODS OF POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT
2- By Using Synchronous Machines

The advantages of synchronous condensers over static capacitors as a

power factor correction devices are as under.

a) A finer control can be obtained by variation of field excitation.

Inherent characteristic of synchronous condensers of stabilizing
variations in the line voltage and thereby automatically aid in regulation.
b) Improvement in the system stability and reduction of the effect of
sudden changes in load owing to inertia of synchronous condenser. c) By
use of synchronous condensers at intermediate stations, the voltage of
the line can be kept constant at various points along its length, thereby,
increasing the current carrying capacity of the line and improvement of
power factor.

35
 METHODS OF POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT
2- By Using Synchronous Machines

The disadvantages of synchronous condensers over static capacitors as

power factor correcting devices are as under;

a) The cost is higher than that of static capacitors of the same rating.
b) Comparatively higher maintenance and operating costs.
c) Comparatively lower efficiency (say 97%) due to losses in rotating
parts and heat losses.
d) Noise is produced in operation.
e) Auxiliary equipment is required for starting synchronous condensers.
f) Possibility of synchronous condensers falling out of synchro­nism
causing in interruption of supply.

36
METHODS OF POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT
3- By Use of Phase Advancers
The power factor of an induction motor falls mainly
due to its exciting current drawn from the ac supply
mains, because exciting current lags behind the
voltage by π / 2. It may be improved by equipping the
set with an ac exciter or phase advancer, which
supplies this exciting current to the rotor circuit at slip
frequency.

Such an exciter may be mounted on the same shaft as

the main motor or may be suitably driven from it. Use
of phase advancer is not generally economical in
connection with motors below 150 KW output but
above this size, phase advancers are frequently
employed. 37
METHODS OF POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

3- By Use of Phase Advancers

There are two main advantages of phase
advancers.

a)Lagging KVAR drawn by the motor is

considerably reduced due to supply of exciting
ampere-turns at slip frequency.

b)The phase advancers can be conveniently

employed where the use of synchronous
motor is in-admissible.
38
 LOCATION OF POWER FACTOR CORRECTION
EQUIPMENT

The preferred location for the power factor

correction equipment to be installed is the load
end because the equipment is responsible for low
power factor.
Synchronous condensers are used at load centres
where considerable corrective KVAR is required
whereas static capacitors are justifiably used in
smaller units and may be placed closer to the
point where the load of inductive nature is
installed and thereby relieving the distributors and
feeders from carrying excessive currents owing to
low power factor. 39
 LOCATION OF POWER FACTOR CORRECTION
EQUIPMENT
In case of transmission system, if synchronous
condensers are to be employed for power factor
improvement then these should be installed at the
receiving end so that not only the generators but
also the transmission lines are relieved of
carrying excessive current due to poor power
factor.
However, if synchronous condensers are
installed near the generators then only generators
will be relieved from the excessive current
component and the transmission lines will have to
carry it.
40
 EFFECT OF SERIES AND SHUNT CAPACITORS

The fundamental function of capacitors,

whether they are series or shunt, is to
regulate the voltage and reactive power
flows at the point where they are installed.

The series capacitor does it by

compensating the inductive reactance of
the circuit whereas the shunt capacitor
does it by changing the power factor of the
load. 41
 EFFECT OF SERIES AND SHUNT CAPACITORS
Series Capacitor
Series Capacitors are connected in series with lines but they are hardly
used in the distribution system because there is a requirement for a large
amount of complex engineering investigation. Figure:8 shows that how
series capacitor compensates for inductive reactance. A series capacitor is
a capacitive (negative) reactance in series with the circuit’s inductive
(positive) reactance with the effect of compensating for part or all of it.
Therefore, the primary effect of the series capacitor is to minimize the
voltage drop caused by the inductive reactance in the circuit. A series
capacitor can even be considered as a voltage regulator that provides
voltage rise which increases automatically and instantaneously as the load
increases.
Also, a series capacitor produces more net voltage rise than a shunt
capacitor at lower power factors, which creates more voltage drop.
However, a series capacitor improves the system power factor much less
than a shunt capacitor and has a little effect on the source current. 42
EFFECT OF SERIES AND SHUNT CAPACITORS
Series Capacitor

Figure:8 Voltage - phasor diagrams for a circuit of lagging power factor

(a) and (c) without and (b) and (d) with series capacitors.
43
 EFFECT OF SERIES AND SHUNT CAPACITORS
Series Capacitor

Consider a feeder circuit and its voltage-phasor diagram as shown in Fig:8

a and c. The voltage drop in the feeder can be expressed as

VD = IR cos φ + jIXL sin φ

Where R = resistance of feeder circuit

XL = inductive reactance of the circuit

cos φ = receiving-end power factor
sin φ = sine of the receiving-end power factor angle.

44
 EFFECT OF SERIES AND SHUNT CAPACITORS
Series Capacitor

As it can be seen from the phasor diagram, the magnitude of the second
term in the above equation for voltage drop is much larger than the first. The
difference gets to be much larger when the power factor is smaller and the
ratio of R/XL is small.

However, when a series capacitor is applied, as shown in Fig:8 b and d. the

resultant lower voltage drop can be calculated as

VD = IR cos φ +j I(XL – XC) sin φ

Where XC = Capacitive reactance of the series capacitor.

45
 EFFECT OF SERIES AND SHUNT CAPACITORS
Shunt Capacitor

Shunt capacitors are connected in parallel with

lines and they are used extensively in distribution
systems. Shunt capacitors supply reactive power
or current to counterbalance the out-of-phase
component of current by an inductive load.

Shunt capacitors modify the characteristic of

inductive load by drawing a leading current, which
balances some or the entire lagging component of
the inductive load current at the point of
installation.
46
 EFFECT OF SERIES AND SHUNT CAPACITORS
Shunt Capacitor

By the application of shunt capacitor to a feeder,

the magnitude of the source current can be
reduced, the power factor can be improved, and
consequently the voltage drop between the
sending end and the load is also reduced.

However, shunt capacitors do not affect current

or power factor beyond their point of application.
Fig show the single line diagram of a line and its
voltage-phasor diagram before the addition of the
shunt capacitor, and fig shows them after the
addition. 47
 EFFECT OF SERIES AND SHUNT CAPACITORS

Shunt Capacitor

Voltage drop in feeder with lagging power factor can be approximated as

VD = IR R +j IX XL

Where R = total resistance of feeder circuit

XL = total inductive reactance of the feeder circuit

IR = real-power (or in-phase component) of the current
IX = reactive (or out-of-phase) component of current lagging
the voltage by 900.

48
 EFFECT OF SERIES AND SHUNT CAPACITORS

Shunt Capacitor
When a capacitor is installed at the receiving end of the line, the resultant
voltage drop can be calculated as

VD = IR R +j IX XL – jICXL

Where IC = reactive (or out-of-phase) component of current leading the

voltage by 900.

49
 MOST ECONOMICAL POWER FACTOR
The increase in power demand on the generating station
can be met either by increasing the capacity of the
generating plant working at the same pf or by raising the
power factor of the system by installation power factor
correction devices. Owing to improvement of power factor
in the beginning the saving in the generating and
distributing plant outweighs the extra cost of the pf
correction equipment in most of the cases but as the
power factor is raised further its cost begins to
approximate to the saving and finally any saving over the
plant is obtained by incurring a greater expenditure on the
pf correcting equipment. Thus there is a limit beyond
which it is not economical still further to improve the
power factor.
50
 MOST ECONOMICAL POWER FACTOR
The maximum value to which the power factor can be economically
raised entirely depends upon the relative costs of the generating plant
and phase advancing plant. When the power factor is improved it
involves expenditure on account of the power factor correcting
equipment.

Improvement of power factor will result in reduction of maximum

demand and thus affect an annual saving over the maximum demand
charge but on the other hand expenditure is to be incurred every year
in the shape of interest and depreciation on account of the investment
made over the power factor correcting equipment.

The limit of the power factor at which the net saving (saving in annual
maximum demand charges less annual expenditure incurred on power
factor correcting equipment) is maximum is known as economical
limit of power factor correcting.
It will be seen that the economical limit of power factor correction is
governed by the relative costs of the supply and power factor
correcting equipment.
51
MOST ECONOMICAL POWER FACTOR
In this case, the kW demand of the consumer is kept constant

Let cos 1 pf before improving

= Initial

cos 2 = Power factor after improvement

KVA1 = S1 = KVA demand before improvement

KVA2 = S2 = KVA demand after improvement

P P
Reduction in KVA demand = S1  S 2  
cos 1 cos 2

 1 1 
= S1  S 2    P
 cos 1 cos 2 

Let Rs. X = charge per KVA

  1 1 
Saving inKVA( Rs )  x  P   
  cos 1 cos 2  
52
 MOST ECONOMICAL POWER FACTOR
This saving is obtained by installing capacitor banks.

KVAR supplied by the capacitor bank = QC= Q1-Q2

KVARC KVAR1  KVAR2  KVA  sin 1
As
P
KVA
cos 1
Hence
P ( Sin1 P ( Sin2
 
cos 1 cos 2
 P tan 1  P tan 2
 P  tan 1  tan 2 

Let Rs. Y Per KVAR (including rate of interest & depreciation)

Totalch arg eonoperating capacitor bank  Y  P  tan 1  tan 2  

  1 1 
Netsaving inch arg eS AR  X P      Y  P  tan 1  tan 2  
  cos 1 cos 2  
53
MOST ECONOMICAL POWER FACTOR
dS AR
Formax imumsaving , put 0
d2

X tan 2  Y sec 2
sin 2 1
X Y
cos 2 cos 2
 y
2  sin 1  
x
  Y 
cos 2  cos sin 1   
  X 
From, the above expression, value of most economical power factor cos ø2 can be
determined which is independent of original power factor cos ø1 and is governed by
the relative costs of supply and power factor correction equipment.
54