Sampling Techniques

& Samples Types

 Outlines
 Sample definition
 Purpose of sampling
 Stages in the selection of a sample
 Types of sampling in quantitative researches
 Types of sampling in qualitative researches
 Ethical Considerations in Data Collection
 Sampling…

The process of selecting a number of individuals

for a study in such a way that the individuals
represent the larger group from which they were
selected
SAMPLING…….

STUDY POPULATION

SAMPLE

TARGET POPULATION

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A sample is “a smaller (but hopefully
representative) collection of units from a
population used to determine truths about that
population” (Field, 2005)

 The sampling frame

A list of all elements or other units containing the

elements in a population.

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Population…

…the larger group om which

individuals are selected to
participate in a study
Target population
A set of elements larger than or different from the population
sampled and to which the researcher would like to generalize
study findings.
The purpose of sampling…

 To gather data about the population in order

to make an inference that can be generalized
to the population
Stages in the Selection of a Sample
Define the target population

Select a sampling frame

Determine if a probability or nonprobability

sampling method will be chosen

Plan procedure for selecting

sampling units

Determine sample size

Select actual sampling units

Conduct fieldwork
 Quantitative Sampling

 Purpose – to identify participants from

whom to seek some information
 Issues

◦ Nature of the sample (random samples)

◦ Size of the sample
◦ Method of selecting the sample
 Quantitative Sampling
 Important issues
◦ Representation – the extent to which the
sample is representative of the population
◦ Generalization – the extent to which the
results of the study can be reasonably
extended from the sample to the population
◦ Sampling error
The chance occurrence that a randomly selected
sample is not representative of the population
due to errors inherent in the sampling technique
 Quantitative Sampling
 Important issues (continued)
◦ Sampling bias
 Some aspect of the researcher’s sampling
design creates bias in the data.
◦ Three fundamental steps
 Identify a population
 Define the sample size
 Select the sample
Types of sampling in quantitative
researches

Non-
Probability
probability
samples
samples
 Selecting Random Samples
 Known as probability sampling
 Best method to achieve a representative
sample
 Four techniques
1. Random
2. Stratified random
3. Cluster
4. Systematic
 Selecting Random Samples
1. Random sampling
Selecting subjects so that all members of a
population have an equal and independent chance
of being selected
 Advantages
1. Easy to conduct
2. High probability of achieving a
representative sample
3. Meets assumptions of many statistical
procedures
 Disadvantages
1. Identification of all members of the
population can be difficult
2. Contacting all members of the sample can
be difficult
 Selecting Random Samples
 Random sampling (continued)
◦ Selection process
 Identify and define the population
 Determine the desired sample size
 List all members of the population
 Assign all members on the list a
consecutive number
 Select an arbitrary starting point from a
table of random numbers and read the
appropriate number of digits
 Selecting Random Samples

2. Stratified random sampling

◦ The population is divided into two
or more groups called strata,
according to some criterion, such
as geographic location, grade
level, age, or income, and
subsamples are randomly selected
from each strata.
 Selecting Random Samples
 Stratified random sampling (continued)
◦ Advantages
 More accurate sample
 Can be used for both proportional and
non-proportional samples
 Representation of subgroups in the
sample
◦ Disadvantages
 Identification of all members of the
population can be difficult
 Identifying members of all subgroups can
be difficult
 Selecting Random Samples
 Stratified random sampling (continued)
◦ Selection process
 Identify and define the population
 Determine the desired sample size
 Identify the variable and subgroups (i.e.,
strata) for which you want to guarantee
appropriate representation
 Classify all members of the population as
members of one of the identified
subgroups
Stratified random sampling
 Selecting Random Samples
3. Cluster sampling
 The process of randomly selecting intact groups,
not individuals, within the defined population
sharing similar characteristics
 Clusters are locations within which an intact group
of members of the population can be found
 Examples
 Neighborhoods
 School districts
 Schools
 Classrooms
 Selecting Random Samples
 Cluster sampling (continued)
◦ Advantages
 Very useful when populations are large and
spread over a large geographic region
 Convenient and expedient
 Do not need the names of everyone in the
population
◦ Disadvantages
 Representation is likely to become an issue
 Selecting Random Samples
 Cluster sampling (continued)
◦ Selection process
 Identify and define the population
 Determine the desired sample size
 Identify and define a logical cluster
 List all clusters that make up the population
of clusters
 Estimate the average number of population
members per cluster
 Determine the number of clusters needed by
dividing the sample size by the estimated
size of a cluster
 Randomly select the needed numbers of
clusters
Cluster sampling
 Selecting Random Samples
4. Systematic sampling
◦ Selecting every Kth subject from a list
of the members of the population
◦ Advantage
 Very easily done
◦ Disadvantages
 subgroups
 Some members of the population
don’t have an equal chance of being
included
 Selecting Random Samples
 Systematic sampling (continued)
◦ Selection process
 Identify and define the population
 Determine the desired sample size
 Obtain a list of the population
 Determine what K is equal to by
dividing the size of the population by
the desired sample size
 Start at some random place in the
population list
 Take every Kth individual on the list
 Systematic sampling
 Example, to select a sample of 25 dorm rooms in your
college dorm, makes a list of all the room numbers in
the dorm. For example there are 100 rooms, divide the
total number of rooms (100) by the number of rooms
you want in the sample (25). The answer is 4. This
means that you are going to select every fourth dorm
room from the list. First of all, we have to determine
the random starting point. This step can be done by
picking any point on the table of random numbers, and
read across or down until you come to a number
between 1 and 4. This is your random starting point.
For instance, your random starting point is "3". This
means you select dorm room 3 as your first room, and
then every fourth room down the list (3, 7, 11, 15, 19,
etc.) until you have 25 rooms selected.
 SAMPLE SIZE
 According to Uma Sekaran in Research Method for
Business 4th Edition, Roscoe (1975) proposed the rules of
thumb for determining sample size where sample size
larger than 30 and less than 500 are appropriate for most
research, and the minimum size of sample should be 30%
of the population.
 The size of the sample depends on a number of factors

and the researchers have to give the statistically

information before they can get an answer. For example,
these information like (confidence level, standard
deviation, margin of error and population size) to
determine the sample size.
 Types of sampling in quantitative
researches

Non-probability samples

(Random): allows a
procedure governed by
chance to select the sample;
controls for sampling bias.
 Nonrandom sampling methods...

1. Convenience sampling

2. Purposive sampling

3. Quota sampling
1. Convenience sampling:
The process of including whoever happens to
be available at the time …called “accidental”
or “haphazard” sampling
 disadvantages…

…difficulty in determining how much of the

effect (dependent variable) results from the
cause (independent variable)
2. Purposive sampling:
The process whereby the researcher selects a
sample based on experience or knowledge of
the group to be sampled …called “judgment”
sampling
 disadvantages…

Potential for inaccuracy in the researcher’s criteria

and resulting sample selections

3. Quota sampling

The process whereby a researcher gathers

data from individuals possessing
identified characteristics and quotas
disadvantages…

People who are less accessible (more difficult

to contact, more reluctant to participate)

are under-represented
 Sampling
in
Qualitative Research
 Sampling in Qualitative Research

Researchers in qualitative research select

their participants
according to their :
1) characteristics
2) knowledge
 The purposeful sampling

It is when the researcher chooses

persons or sites which provide
specific knowledge about the topic of
the study.
Types of Purposeful Sampling
1) Maximal Variation Sampling 
2) Typical Sampling
3) Theory or Concept Sampling
4) Homogeneous Sampling
5) Critical Sampling
6) Opportunistic Sampling
7) Snowball Sampling
1- Maximal Variation Sampling 

It is when you select individuals that differ on a

certain characteristic. In this strategy you should first

identify the characteristic and then find individuals or

sites which display that characteristic.  

 2- Typical Sampling

It is when you study a person or a site that is

“typical” to those unfamiliar with the situation.

You can select a typical sample by collecting

demographic  data or survey data about all cases.  

 3-Theory or Concept Sampling

It is when you select individuals or sites because they

can help you to generate a theory or specific concepts
within the theory. In this strategy you need a full
understanding of the concept or the theory expected
to discover during the study.
 4- Homogeneous Sampling

It is when you select certain sites or people because

they possess similar characteristics. In this
strategy, you need to identify the characteristics and
find individuals or sites that possess it.
 5- Critical Sampling

It is when you study an exceptional case

represents the central phenomenon in
dramatic terms.
 6- Opportunistic Sampling

It is used after data collection begins, when you

may find that you need to collect new information
to answer your research questions.
 7- Snowball Sampling

It is when you don't know the best people to

study because of the unfamiliarity of the topic
or the complexity of events. So you ask
participants during interviews to suggest other
individuals to be sampled.
 
 Ethical Considerations in Data Collection

 It is the researcher’s ethical responsibility to safeguard the

story teller by maintaining the understood purpose of the
research…
 The relationship should be based on trust between the
researcher and participants.
 Inform participants of the purpose of the study.
 Being respectful of the research site, reciprocity,
using ethical interview practices, maintaining
privacy, and cooperating with participants.

 Patton (2002) offered a checklist of general ethical

issues to consider, such as:
 reciprocity
 assessment of risk
 confidentiality,
 informed consent
 and data access and ownership.
 Qualitative researchers must be aware of the
potential for their own emotional turmoil in
processing this information
 During the interview process, participants may

disclose sensitive and potentially distressing

information in the course of the interview.
Methods to calculate or
estimate the sample size
for a given population
Krejicie & Morgan Formula for Calculating Sample
Size
Table to Decide the Sample size based on Level
of Significance or Margin of Significance
To calculate sample size when data is in terms of
percentage (%)

(Z^2)pq
n=---------
(E^2)
n=No. of items
Z^2=square of confidence level in standard error
unit (Square of table value at given LOS)
p= proportion of success
q=proportion of failure
E^2=Square of maximum allowance of error
between the true proportion & the sample
proportion
When data is in the form of averages sample size
can be calculated based on

(ZS)^2
n = --------
E^2

Z= Confidence level(Table Value at given LOS)

E= Error (LOS 5% - 1%)
s= SD of population, when population SD is
unknown we use sample SD