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12-2
Overview of the Nervous System
12-3
Overview of the Nervous System
12-4
Overview of the Nervous System
• Nervous system carries out its task in three
basic steps
• Sense organs receive information about changes in
the body and external environment, and transmit
coded messages to the brain and spinal cord (CNS:
central nervous system)
• CNS processes this information, relates it to past
experiences, and determines appropriate response
• CNS issues commands to muscles and gland cells
to carry out such a response
12-5
Overview of the Nervous System
• Two major subdivisions of nervous system
– Central nervous system (CNS)
• Brain and spinal cord enclosed by cranium and vertebral
column
12-6
Overview of the Nervous System
• Peripheral nervous system contains sensory
and motor divisions each with somatic and visceral
subdivisions
– Sensory (afferent) division: carries signals from
receptors to CNS
• Somatic sensory division: carries signals from receptors
in the skin, muscles, bones, and joints
• Visceral sensory division: carries signals from the
viscera (heart, lungs, stomach, and urinary bladder)
12-7
Overview of the Nervous System
• Motor (efferent) division—carries signals from
CNS to effectors (glands and muscles that carry
out the body’s response)
– Somatic motor division: carries signals to skeletal
muscles
• Output produces muscular contraction as well as somatic
reflexes—involuntary muscle contractions
– Visceral motor division (autonomic nervous system)
—carries signals to glands, cardiac and smooth muscle
• Its involuntary responses are visceral reflexes
12-8
Overview of the Nervous System
• Visceral motor division (autonomic nervous system)
– Sympathetic division
• Tends to arouse body for action
• Accelerating heart beat and respiration, while inhibiting
digestive and urinary systems
– Parasympathetic division
• Tends to have calming effect
• Slows heart rate and breathing
• Stimulates digestive and urinary systems
12-9
Subdivisions of the Nervous System
12-12
Universal Properties of Neurons
• Excitability (irritability)
– Respond to environmental changes called stimuli
• Conductivity
– Respond to stimuli by producing electrical signals that
are quickly conducted to other cells at distant locations
• Secretion
– When an electrical signal reaches the end of nerve
fiber, the cell secretes a chemical neurotransmitter
that influences the next cell
12-13
Functional Classes of Neurons
• Sensory (afferent) neurons
– Detect stimuli and transmit information about them
toward the CNS
• Interneurons (association neurons)
– Lie entirely within CNS connecting motor and sensory
pathways (about 90% of all neurons)
– Receive signals from many neurons and carry out
integrative functions (make decisions on responses)
• Motor (efferent) neuron
– Send signals out to muscles and gland cells (the
effectors)
12-14
Classes of Neurons
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1 Sensory (afferent)
neurons conduct
signals from receptors
to the CNS.
2 Interneurons
3 Motor (efferent) (association
neurons conduct neurons) are
signals from the CNS confined to
to effectors such as the CNS.
muscles and glands.
Figure 12.3
12-15
Structure of a Neuron Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
old organelles)
Internodes
Node of Ranvier
Schwann cell
• No centrioles, no mitosis
Synaptic knobs
(a) 12-16
Figure 12.4a
Structure of a Neuron Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Dendrites
• Dendrites—branches that
come off the soma Soma
Nucleus
of information
Node of Ranvier
Myelin sheath
Schwann cell
Terminal
arborization
Synaptic knobs
(a) 12-17
Figure 12.4a
Structure of a Neuron
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Schwann cell
axon
– Only one axon per neuron (some
neurons have none) Terminal
arborization
(a)
12-18
Figure 12.4a
Structure of a Neuron
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Internodes
full of neurotransmitter
Myelin sheath
Schwann cell
Terminal
arborization
Synaptic knobs
(a)
12-19
Figure 12.4a
Structure of a Neuron Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
• Multipolar neuron
– One axon and multiple dendrites
– Most common – most neurons in CNS Dendrites
Axon
• Unipolar neuron
– Single process leading away from soma Axon
Anaxonic neuron
12-22
Supportive Cells (Neuroglia)
• Expected Learning Outcomes
– Name the six types of cells that aid neurons and state
their respective functions.
– Describe the myelin sheath that is found around
certain nerve fibers and explain its importance.
– Describe the relationship of unmyelinated nerve fibers
to their supportive cells.
– Explain how damaged nerve fibers regenerate.
12-23
Supportive Cells (Neuroglia)
• About 1 trillion neurons in the nervous system
• Neuroglia outnumber neurons by at least 10 to 1
• Neuroglia or glial cells
– Protect neurons and help them function
– Bind neurons together and form framework for nervous
tissue
– In fetus, guide migrating neurons to their destination
– If mature neuron is not in synaptic contact with another
neuron, it is covered by glial cells
• Prevents neurons from touching each other
• Gives precision to conduction pathways
12-24
Types of Neuroglia
• Four types of glia occur in CNS: oligodendrocytes,
ependymal cells, microglia, and astrocytes
– Oligodendrocytes
• Form myelin sheaths in CNS that speed signal conduction
– Arm-like processes wrap around nerve fibers
– Ependymal cells
• Line internal cavities of the brain; secrete and circulate
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
– Cuboidal epithelium with cilia on apical surface
– Microglia
• Wander through CNS looking for debris and damage
– Develop from white blood cells (monocytes) and become
concentrated in areas of damage
12-25
Types of Neuroglia
• Astrocytes
- Most abundant glial cell in CNS, covering brain surface and
most nonsynaptic regions of neurons in the gray matter
- Diverse functions:
– Form supportive framework
– Have extensions (perivascular feet) that contact blood
capillaries and stimulate them to form a seal called the blood–
brain barrier
– Convert glucose to lactate and supply this to neurons
– Secrete nerve growth factors
– Communicate electrically with neurons
– Regulate chemical composition of tissue fluid by absorbing
excess neurotransmitters and ions
– Astrocytosis or sclerosis—when neuron is damaged,
astrocytes form hardened scar tissue and fill in space
12-26
Neuroglial Cells of CNS
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Capillary Neurons
Astrocyte Oligodendrocyte
Figure 12.6
12-27
Types of Neuroglia
– Satellite cells
• Surround the neurosomas in ganglia of the PNS
• Provide electrical insulation around the soma
• Regulate the chemical environment of the neurons
12-28
Myelin
• Myelin sheath—insulation around a nerve fiber
– Formed by oligodendrocytes in CNS and Schwann
cells in PNS
– Consists of the plasma membrane of glial cells
• 20% protein and 80% lipid
12-29
Myelin
• In PNS, Schwann cell spirals repeatedly around a
single nerve fiber
– Lays down as many as one hundred layers of membrane
– No cytoplasm between the membranes
– Neurilemma: thick, outermost coil of myelin sheath
• Contains nucleus and most of its cytoplasm
• External to neurilemma is basal lamina and a thin layer of
fibrous connective tissue—endoneurium
12-30
Myelin Sheath in PNS
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Schwann cell
Axoplasm nucleus
Axolemma
Neurilemma
Schwann cell
Axon
Basal lamina Endoneurium
Nucleus
(a)
Neurilemma Myelin sheath
Figure 12.7a
12-32
Myelin
• In CNS—an oligodendrocyte myelinates
several nerve fibers in its immediate vicinity
– Anchored to multiple nerve fibers
– Cannot migrate around any one of them like Schwann
cells
– Must push newer layers of myelin under the older
ones; so myelination spirals inward toward nerve fiber
– Nerve fibers in CNS have no neurilemma or
endoneurium
12-33
Myelination in CNS
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Oligodendrocyte
Myelin
Nerve fiber
Figure 12.7b
(b) 12-34
Myelin
• Many Schwann cells or oligodendrocytes are
needed to cover one nerve fiber
12-35
Glial Cells and Brain Tumors
• Tumors—masses of rapidly dividing cells
– Mature neurons have little or no capacity for mitosis and
seldom form tumors
12-36
Diseases of the Myelin Sheath
• Degenerative disorders of the myelin sheath
– Multiple sclerosis
• Oligodendrocytes and myelin sheaths in the CNS
deteriorate
• Myelin replaced by hardened scar tissue
• Nerve conduction disrupted (double vision, tremors,
numbness, speech defects)
• Onset between 20 and 40 and fatal from 25 to 30 years
after diagnosis
• Cause may be autoimmune triggered by virus
12-37
Diseases of the Myelin Sheath
(continued)
• Degenerative disorders of the myelin sheath
– Tay–Sachs disease: a hereditary disorder of infants of
Eastern European Jewish ancestry
• Abnormal accumulation of glycolipid called GM2 in the
myelin sheath
– Normally decomposed by lysosomal enzyme
– Enzyme missing in individuals homozygous for Tay–Sachs
allele
– Accumulation of ganglioside (GM2) disrupts conduction of
nerve signals
– Blindness, loss of coordination, and dementia
• Fatal before age 4
12-38
Unmyelinated Nerve Fibers
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Unmyelinated
nerve fibers
Schwann cell
Basal lamina
12-40
Conduction Speed of Nerve Fibers
• Conduction speed
– Small, unmyelinated fibers: 0.5 to 2.0 m/s
– Small, myelinated fibers: 3 to 15.0 m/s
– Large, myelinated fibers: up to 120 m/s
– Slow signals sent to the gastrointestinal tract where
speed is less of an issue
– Fast signals sent to skeletal muscles where speed
improves balance and coordinated body movement
12-41
Regeneration of Nerve Fibers
• Regeneration of damaged peripheral nerve fiber can occur
if:
– Its soma is intact
– At least some neurilemma remains
• Steps of regeneration:
– Fiber distal to the injury cannot survive and degenerates
• Macrophages clean up tissue debris at point of injury and beyond
– Soma swells, ER breaks up, and nucleus moves off center
• Due to loss of nerve growth factors from neuron’s target cell
– Axon stump sprouts multiple growth processes as severed distal
end continues to degenerate
– Schwann cells, basal lamina and neurilemma form a regeneration
tube
• Enables neuron to regrow to original destination and reestablish
synaptic contact
12-42
Regeneration of Nerve Fibers
• Once contact is reestablished with original
target, the soma shrinks and returns to its
original appearance
– Nucleus returns to normal shape
– Atrophied muscle fibers regrow
Figure 12.9
12-44
Nerve Growth Factor
• Nerve growth factor (NGF)—
protein secreted by a gland,
muscle, or glial cells and
picked up by the axon
terminals of neurons
– Prevents apoptosis
(programmed cell death) in
growing neurons
– Enables growing neurons to
make contact with their targets
• Isolated by Rita Levi-
Montalcini in 1950s
Figure 12.10
• Won Nobel prize in 1986 with
Stanley Cohen
• Use of growth factors is now
a vibrant field of research
12-45
Electrophysiology of Neurons
12-46
Electrophysiology of Neurons
• Galen (Roman physician) thought brain pumped a vapor called
psychic pneuma through hollow nerves and into muscles to make
them contract
• René Descartes in the 17th century supported Galen’s theory
• Luigi Galvani discovered the role of electricity in muscle
contraction in the 18th century
• Camillo Golgi developed an important method for staining neurons
with silver in the 19th century
• Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1852-1934) used stains to trace neural
pathways
– He showed that pathways were made of distinct neurons (not
continuous tubes)
– He demonstrated how separate neurons were connected by synapses
12-47
Electrophysiology of Neurons
12-48
Electrical Potentials and Currents
• Electrophysiology—study of cellular mechanisms for
producing electrical potentials and currents
– Basis for neural communication and muscle contraction
12-50
The Resting Membrane Potential
• Potassium (K+) has greatest influence on RMP
– Plasma membrane is more permeable to K+ than any
other ion
– Leaks out until electrical charge of cytoplasmic anions
attracts it back in and equilibrium is reached (no more
net movement of K+)
– K+ is about 40 times as concentrated in the ICF as in the
ECF
• Cytoplasmic anions cannot escape due to size
or charge (phosphates, sulfates, small organic
acids, proteins, ATP, and RNA)
12-51
The Resting Membrane Potential
12-52
The Resting Membrane Potential
• Na+/K+ pump moves 3 Na+ out for every 2 K+ it
brings in
– Works continuously to compensate for Na+ and K+
leakage, and requires great deal of ATP (1 ATP per
exchange)
• 70% of the energy requirement of the nervous system
– Necessitates glucose and oxygen be supplied to nerve
tissue (energy needed to create the resting potential)
– The exchange of 3 positive charges for only 2 positive
charges contributes about −3 mV to the cell’s resting
membrane potential of −70 mV
12-53
The Resting Membrane Potential
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
ECF
K+
Na+ channel
channel
Na+ 12 m Eq/L
K+ 150 m Eq/L
Large anions
that cannot
ICF escape cell
12-56
Local Potentials
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Current
ECF
Ligand
Receptor
Plasma
membrane
of dendrite
Na+
ICF
12-57
Figure 12.12
Action Potentials
• Action potential—dramatic change in membrane
polarity produced by voltage-gated ion channels
– Only occurs where there is a high enough density of
voltage-regulated gates
– Soma (50 to 75 gates per m2 ); cannot generate an
action potential
– Trigger zone (350 to 500 gates per m2 ); where action
potential is generated
• If excitatory local potential reaches trigger zone and is still
strong enough, it can open these gates and generate an
action potential
12-58
Action Potentials
• Action potential is a rapid up-and-down shift in the
membrane voltage involving a sequence of steps:
– Arrival of current at axon hillock depolarizes membrane
– Depolarization must reach threshold: critical voltage
(about -55 mV) required to open voltage-regulated gates
– Voltage-gated Na+ channels open, Na+ enters and
depolarizes cell, which opens more channels resulting in a
rapid positive feedback cycle as voltage rises
12-59
Action Potentials
• (Steps in action potential shift in membrane voltage,
Continued)
12-60
Action Potentials
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
affected 0
Depolarization Repolarization
mV
Threshold
are involved –55
2
Local
potential 1
• Action potential is often –70
7
Figure 12.13a
12-61
Action Potentials
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
K+
Na+
K+
channel
Na+
channel
35 35
0 0
mV
mV
35 35
0 0
Figure 12.14
mV
mV
potential)
– Follows an all-or-none law 3 5
• If threshold is reached, 0
Depolarization Repolarization
neuron fires at its Action
potential
mV
maximum voltage Threshold
2
• If threshold is not reached, –55
Local
it does not fire potential 1
4
+35 +35
3 Spike
5
0
0
Depolarization Repolarization
Action
mV
mV
potential
Threshold
2
–55
Local
potential 1
7 Hyperpolarization
–70
Resting membrane 6 Hyperpolarization
potential –70
Time 0 10 20 30 40 50
(a) (b) ms
Figure 12.13a,b
12-64
Action Potential vs. Local Potential
Table 12.2
12-65
The Refractory Period
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Absolute Relative
refractory refractory
mV
Threshold
• Refractory period—the
period of resistance to –55
Resting membrane
potential
stimulation –70
Time
Figure 12.15
12-66
The Refractory Period
• Two phases Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
mV
stimulus will trigger new AP
• K+ gates are still open and any
Threshold
effect of incoming Na+ is
opposed by the outgoing K+ –55
Resting membrane
• Generally lasts until potential
–70
hyperpolarization ends
• Only a small patch of neuron’s Time
membrane is refractory at one
time (other parts of the cell can Figure 12.15
be stimulated)
12-67
Signal Conduction in Nerve Fibers
• Unmyelinated fibers have voltage-gated channels along
their entire length
• Action potential at trigger zone causes Na+ to enter
the axon and diffuse into adjacent regions; this
depolarization excites voltage-gated channels
• Opening of voltage-gated ion channels results in a
new action potential which then allows Na+ diffusion
to excite the membrane immediately distal to that
• Chain reaction continues until the nerve signal
reaches the end of the axon
– The nerve signal is like a wave of falling dominoes
12-68
Signal Conduction in Nerve Fibers
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Dendrites
Cell body Axon
Signal
Refractory
membrane
––––+++–––––– –––– –
Excitable ++++–––++ ++++ +++++
membrane
membrane ensures
that action potential –––––––––+++– –––– –
+++++++++ –––+ +++ ++
travels in one
direction +++++++++ ++++ ––– ++
––––––––––––– +++– – Figure 12.16
12-70
Signal Conduction in Nerve Fibers
(Continued)
•Myelin speeds up this conduction by minimizing leakage
of Na+ out of the cell and further separating the inner
positive ions from attraction of negative ions outside cell
– But the signal strength does start to fade in the
internode
•When signal reaches the next node of Ranvier it is
strong enough to open the voltage gated ion channels,
and a new, full-strength action potential occurs
12-71
Signal Conduction in Nerve Fibers
Figure 12.17b
12-74
Synapses
• A nerve signal can go no further when it reaches
the end of the axon
– Triggers the release of a neurotransmitter
– Stimulates a new wave of electrical activity in the next
cell across the synapse
• Synapse between two neurons
– First neuron in the signal path is the presynaptic
neuron
• Releases neurotransmitter
– Second neuron is postsynaptic neuron
• Responds to neurotransmitter
12-75
Synapses
• Presynaptic neuron may synapse with a dendrite,
soma, or axon of postsynaptic neuron to form
axodendritic, axosomatic, or axoaxonic synapses
• A neuron can have an enormous number of
synapses
– Spinal motor neuron covered by about 10,000 synaptic
knobs from other neurons
• 8,000 ending on its dendrites
• 2,000 ending on its soma
• In the cerebellum of brain, one neuron can have as
many as 100,000 synapses
12-76
Synapses
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Soma
Synapse
Axon
Presynaptic Direction of
Postsynaptic
neuron signal
neuron
transmission
(a)
Axodendritic synapse
Axosomatic
synapse
Axoaxonic synapse
(b) 12-77
Figure 12.18
The Discovery of Neurotransmitters
• Synaptic cleft—gap between neurons was discovered
by Ramón y Cajal through histological observations
• Otto Loewi, in 1921, demonstrated that neurons
communicate by releasing chemicals—chemical
synapses
– He flooded exposed hearts of two frogs with saline
– Stimulated vagus nerve of the first frog and the heart
slowed
– Removed saline from that frog and found it slowed heart of
second frog
– Named it Vagusstoffe (“vagus substance”)
• Later renamed acetylcholine, the first known neurotransmitter
12-78
The Discovery of Neurotransmitters
• Electrical synapses do exist
– Occur between some neurons, neuroglia, and cardiac
and single-unit smooth muscle
– Gap junctions join adjacent cells
• Ions diffuse through the gap junctions from one cell to the
next
– Advantage of quick transmission
• No delay for release and binding of neurotransmitter
– Disadvantage that they cannot integrate information and
make decisions
• Ability reserved for chemical synapses in which neurons
communicate with neurotransmitters
12-79
Structure of a Chemical Synapse
• Synaptic knob of presynaptic neuron contains
synaptic vesicles containing neurotransmitter
– Many vesicles are docked on release sites on plasma
membrane ready to release neurotransmitter
– A reserve pool of synaptic vesicles is located further
away from membrane
12-80
Structure of a Chemical Synapse
Microtubules
ofcytoskeleton
Synaptic vesicles
containing neurotransmitter
Synaptic cleft
Neurotransmitter
receptor
Figure 12.20 Postsynaptic neuron
Neurotransmitter
release
12-84
Neurotransmitters and Related
Messengers Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Figure 12.21
12-85
Neurotransmitters and Related
Messengers Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
12-86
Synaptic Transmission
• Synapses vary
– Some neurotransmitters are excitatory, others are
inhibitory, and sometimes a transmitter’s effect differs
depending on the type of receptor on the postsynaptic cell
– Some receptors are ligand-gated ion channels and others
act through second messengers
12-87
An Excitatory Cholinergic Synapse
• Cholinergic synapse—uses acetylcholine (ACh)
– Nerve signal arrives at synaptic knob and opens voltage-
gated Ca2+ channels
– Ca2+ enters knob and triggers exocytosis of Ach
– Ach diffuses across cleft and binds to postsynaptic
receptors
– The receptors are ion channels that open and allow Na+
and K+ to diffuse
– Entry of Na+ causes a depolarizing postsynaptic potential
– If depolarization is strong enough, it will cause an action
potential at the trigger zone
12-88
An Excitatory Cholinergic Synapse
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Presynaptic neuron
Presynaptic neuron
3
Ca2+
2 ACh
Na+
– – –
– – – –
4 + + +
+ + + + Figure 12.22
5
K+
Postsynaptic neuron
12-89
An Inhibitory GABA-ergic Synapse
• GABA-ergic synapse employs -aminobutyric acid as its
neurotransmitter
• Nerve signal triggers release of GABA into synaptic
cleft
• GABA receptors are chloride channels
• Cl− enters cell and makes the inside more negative than
the resting membrane potential
• Postsynaptic neuron is inhibited, and less likely to
fire
12-90
An Excitatory Adrenergic Synapse
• Adrenergic synapse employs the neurotransmitter
norepinephrine (NE), also called noradrenaline
• NE and other monoamines, and neuropeptides, act through
second-messenger systems such as cyclic AMP (cAMP)
• Receptor is not an ion gate, but a transmembrane protein
associated with a G protein
• Slower to respond than cholinergic and GABA-ergic
synapses
• Has advantage of enzyme amplification—single molecule
of NE can produce vast numbers of product molecules in the
cell
12-91
An Excitatory Adrenergic Synapse
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Presynaptic neuron
Postsynaptic neuron
Neurotransmitter
receptor
Norepinephrine
Adenylate cyclase
G protein
–
– –
+
+ +
1
2 Ligand-
3 5
gated
Na+
channels
opened
cAMP
4 Postsynaptic
potential
Multiple
Enzyme activation possible
6 effects
7
Metabolic
Genetic transcription
changes
Figure 12.23
Enzyme synthesis 12-92
Cessation of the Signal
• Synapses must turn off stimulation to keep
postsynaptic neuron from firing indefinitely
• Presynaptic cell stops releasing neurotransmitter
• Neurotransmitter only stays bound to its receptor
for about 1 ms and then is cleared
– Neurotransmitter diffuses into nearby ECF
• Astrocytes in CNS absorb it and return it to neurons
– Synaptic knob reabsorbs neurotransmitter by endocytosis
• Monoamine transmitters are broken down after reabsorption by
monoamine oxidase
– Acetylcholine is broken down by acetylcholinesterase (AchE) in
the synaptic cleft
• After degradation, the presynaptic cell reabsorbs the fragments of
the molecule for recycling
12-93
Neuromodulators
• Neuromodulators—chemicals secreted by neurons
that have long term effects on groups of neurons
– May alter the rate of neurotransmitter synthesis, release,
reuptake, or breakdown
– May adjust sensitivity of postsynaptic membrane
• Nitric oxide (NO) is a simple neuromodulator
– It is a gas that enters postsynaptic cells and activates 2nd
messenger pathways (example: relaxing smooth muscle)
• Neuropeptides are chains of amino acids that
can act as neuromodulators
– Enkephalins and endorphins are neuropeptides that inhibit
pain signals in the CNS
12-94
Neural Integration
12-95
Neural Integration
• Neural integration—the ability to process, store,
and recall information and use it to make
decisions
• Chemical synapses allow for decision making
– Brain cells are incredibly well connected allowing for
complex integration
• Pyramidal cells of cerebral cortex have about 40,000 contacts
with other neurons
– Trade off: chemical transmission involves a synaptic
delay that makes information travel slower than it would
be if there was no synapse
12-96
Postsynaptic Potentials
• Neural integration is based on postsynaptic potentials
occurring in a cell receiving chemical signals
• For a cell to fire an action potential it must be
excited to its threshold level (typically −55 mV)
– An excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) is a
voltage change from RMP toward threshold
– EPSP usually results from Na+ flowing into the cell
• Some chemical messages inhibit the postsynaptic
cell by hyperpolarizing it
– An inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) occurs
when the cell’s voltage becomes more negative than it is
at rest (it is less likely to fire)
– IPSP can result from Cl− entry or K+ exit from cell
12-97
Postsynaptic Potentials
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
–20
–40
mV
Threshold
Repolarization
–80
Depolarization
–20
mV
–40
Threshold
–80
Figure 12.24
Hyperpolarization
12-99
Summation, Facilitation, and Inhibition
• One neuron can receive input from thousands of
other neurons
• Some incoming nerve fibers may produce
EPSPs while others produce IPSPs
• Neuron’s response depends on whether the net
input is excitatory or inhibitory
• Summation—the process of adding up
postsynaptic potentials and responding to their net
effect
– Occurs in the trigger zone
12-100
Summation, Facilitation, and Inhibition
• The balance between EPSPs and IPSPs enables the
nervous system to make decisions
• Temporal summation—occurs when a single synapse
generates EPSPs so quickly that each is generated before
the previous one fades
– Allows EPSPs to add up over time to a threshold voltage that
triggers an action potential
• Spatial summation—occurs when EPSPs from several
different synapses add up to threshold at an axon hillock
– Several synapses admit enough Na+ to reach threshold
– Presynaptic neurons collaborate to induce the postsynaptic
neuron to fire
– An example of facilitation—a process in which one neuron
enhances the effect of another
12-101
Temporal and Spatial Summation
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3 Postsynaptic
neuron fires
2 EPSPs spread
from one synapse
to trigger zone
1 Intense stimulation
by one presynaptic
neuron
3 Postsynaptic
neuron fires
2 EPSPs spread from
several synapses
to trigger zone
1 Simultaneous stimulation
by several presynaptic
neurons
+40
+20
Action potential
mV
–20
–40 Threshold
–60 EPSPs
–80 Resting
Stimuli
membrane Figure 12.26
potential
Time
No activity in inhibitory
neuron
No neurotransmitter Neurotransmitter
release here Inhibition of presynaptic IPSP
neuron
S S
Neurotransmitter No neurotransmitter
release here
Excitation of postsynaptic
neuron
+
EPSP
R No response in postsynaptic R
neuron
(a) (b)
Figure 12.27 12-104
Neural Coding
• Neural coding—the way the nervous system converts
information into a meaningful pattern of action potentials
• Qualitative information depends on which neurons fire
– Labeled line code: each sensory nerve fiber to the brain
leads from a receptor that recognizes a specific stimulus
type (e.g., optic nerve labeled as “light”)
Action potentials
2g
5g
10 g
20 g
Time 12-106
Figure 12.28
Neural Pools and Circuits
• Neural pools—neurons function in large groups, each
of which consists of thousands of interneurons
concerned with a particular body function
– Control rhythm of breathing
– Moving limbs rhythmically when walking
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Input neuron
Figure 12.29
• Converging circuit
– Input from many different nerve fibers can be funneled
to one neuron or neural pool
– Opposite of diverging circuit
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Neural Pools and Circuits
(Continued)
• Reverberating circuits
– Neurons stimulate each other in linear sequence but
one or more of the later cells restimulates the first cell to
start the process all over
– Diaphragm and intercostal muscles
12-110
Neural Pools and Circuits
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Diverging Converging
Input Output
Output
Input
Figure 12.30
Input Output
Input Output
12-111
Memory and Synaptic Plasticity
• Physical basis of memory is a pathway through
the brain called a memory trace or engram
– Along this pathway, new synapses were created or
existing synapses modified to make transmission easier
– Synaptic plasticity: the ability of synapses to change
– Synaptic potentiation: the process of making
transmission easier
• Kinds of memory
– Immediate, short- and long-term memory
– Correlate with different modes of synaptic potentiation
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Immediate Memory
12-113
Short-Term Memory
• Short-term memory (STM)—lasts from seconds to a
few hours
– Includes working memory for taking action
• Example: calling a phone number you just looked up
• Storage appears to occur in circuits of facilitated
synapses
– Tetanic stimulation: rapid arrival of repetitive signals at
a synapse may foster very brief memories
• Causes Ca2+ accumulation and makes postsynaptic cell
more likely to fire
– Posttetanic potentiation: appears to be involved in
jogging a memory from a few hours ago
• Ca2+ level in synaptic knob stays elevated
• Little stimulation needed to recover memory
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Long-Term Memory
• Long term memory (LTM) may last a lifetime and can
hold more information than short term memory
• Types of long-term memory
– Declarative: retention of events you can put into words
– Procedural: retention of motor skills
• Some LTM involves remodeling of synapses or
formation of new ones
– New branching of axons or dendrites
• Some LTM involves molecular changes such as long-
term potentiation
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Long-Term Memory
• Long-term potentiation involves NMDA receptors
on dendritic spines of pyramidal neurons
• When NMDA receptors bind glutamate and
receive tetanic stimuli, they allow Ca2+ to enter
the cell
• Ca2+ acts as second messenger causing:
– More NMDA receptors to be produced
– Synthesis of proteins involved in synapse remodeling
– Releases of signals (maybe nitric oxide) that trigger more
neurotransmitter release from presynaptic neuron
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Alzheimer Disease
• 100,000 deaths/year
– Affects 11% of population over 65; 47% by age 85
• Memory loss for recent events, moody, combative, lose
ability to talk, walk, and eat
• Show deficiencies of acetylcholine and nerve growth factor
(NGF)
• Diagnosis confirmed at autopsy
– Atrophy of gyri (folds) in cerebral cortex
– Neurofibrillary tangles and senile plaques
– Formation of β-amyloid protein from breakdown product of plasma
membranes
• Treatment
– Trying to find ways to clear β-amyloid or halt its production, but
research halted due to serious side effects
– Patients show modest results with NGF or cholinesterase inhibitors
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Alzheimer Disease
Figure 12.31b
Figure 12.31a
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Parkinson Disease
• Progressive loss of motor function beginning in 50s or
60s— no recovery
– Degeneration of dopamine-releasing neurons
• Dopamine normally prevents excessive activity in motor
centers (basal nuclei)
• Involuntary muscle contractions
– Pill-rolling motion, facial rigidity, slurred speech
– Illegible handwriting, slow gait
• Treatment—drugs and physical therapy
– Dopamine precursor (L-dopa) crosses brain barrier; bad side
effects on heart and liver
– MAO inhibitor slows neural degeneration
– Surgical technique to relieve tremors
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