Chapter 6

CHAPTER 6
UNIVERSITY OF
GONDAR
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEP’T
Measurements of Fluid Flow
• Flow measurement is a technique used in
any process requiring the transport of a
material from one point to another .
For example:
• bulk supply of oil from a road tanker to a
garage holding tank.
• It can be used for quantifying a charge for
material supplied or maintaining and
controlling a specific rate of flow.
Cont…
The ideal flowmeter should be:
 non-intrusive,
 inexpensive,
 have absolute accuracy,
 infinite repeatability, and
 run forever without maintenance.
Basic principles of flow
measurement
Flow can be measured as either

a volumetric quantity or an
instantaneous velocity this is
normally translated into a flow rate.
Measuring flow meters
 Flow measurement is an everyday event;
 Whether you are filling up a car with petrol
(gasoline) or
 wanting to know how much water the garden
sprinkler is consuming, a flow meter is required.
 common types of differential pressure flowmeter;

that is,
 the orifice plate,
 Venture tube, and
 nozzle.
Cont…
 A differential pressure flow meter consists of

two basic elements:
 an obstruction to cause a pressure drop in
the flow (a differential producer) and
 a method of measuring the pressure drop
across this obstruction (a differential
pressure transducer).
Cont…
 One of the major advantages of the orifice
plate, Venturi tube, or nozzle is that
 the measurement uncertainty can be
predicted without the need for calibration, if
it is manufactured and installed in
accordance with one of the international
standards covering these devices.
 In addition, this type of differential pressure
flowmeter is simple, has no moving parts,
and is therefore reliable.
The main disadvantages of these devices;
 their limited range (typically 3:1),

 the permanent pressure drop they
produce in the pipeline (which can result
in higher pumping costs), and
 their sensitivity to installation effects
(which can be minimized using straight
lengths of pipe before and after the
flowmeter).
Important Principles of Fluid Flow in
Pipes
 the difference between laminar and turbulent

flow,
 the meaning of Reynolds number, and
 the importance of the flow’s velocity profile.
Fluid motion
Fluid motion in a pipe can be characterized as one of
three types: laminar, transitional, or turbulent.
 In laminar flow, the fluid travels as parallel layers
(known as streamlines) that do not mix as they move
in the direction of the flow.
 If the flow is turbulent, the fluid does not travel in
parallel layers, but moves in a haphazard manner
with only the average motion of the fluid being parallel
to the axis of the pipe.
 If the flow is transitional, then both types may be
present at different points along the pipeline or the
flow may switch between the two.
Reynolds number
The Reynolds number Re is the ratio of the inertia forces in the flow
( ρvD) to the viscous forces in the flow (h) and can be calculated using:
Re = ρvD/h
where : ρ= Density of the fluid
v= Mean velocity of the fluid
D= Pipe diameter
h= Dynamic viscosity of the fluid
 If Re is less than 2000, viscous forces in the flow dominate and the flow
will be laminar.
 If Re is greater than 4000, inertia forces in the flow dominate and the
flow will be turbulent.
 If Re is between 2000 and 4000, the flow is transitional and either mode
can be present.
Common Differential Pressure
Flowmeters
The Orifice Plate
 is the simplest and cheapest type of
differential pressure flowmeter.
 It is simply a plate with a hole of
specified size and position cut in it,
which can then clamped between
flanges in a pipeline(Figure below).
Cont…
The Venturi Tube
Cont…
As the above Figure shows,
 a restriction is introduced into the flow in a more gradual
way than for the orifice plate.
 The resulting flow through a Venturi tube is closer to that
predicted in theory so the discharge coefficient C is much
nearer unity, being (typically 0.95).
In addition,
 the permanent pressure loss caused by the Venturi tube is
lower, but the differential pressure is also lower than for an
orifice plate of the same diameter ratio.
 The smooth design of the Venturi tube means that it is less
sensitive to erosion than the orifice plate, and thus more
suitable for use with dirty gases or liquids.
The Nozzle
Cont…
The nozzle (Figure 28.6) combines some of the best features of
the orifice plate and Venture tube.
 It is compact and yet, because of its curved inlet, has a
discharge coefficient close to unity.
 The smooth inlet of the nozzle means that it is more expensive

to manufacture than the orifice plate as the curvature of the
inlet changes with diameter ratio, although it is cheaper than
the Venture tube.
 The device has no sharp edges to erode and cause changes
in calibration, and thus is well suited for use with dirty and
abrasive fluids. The nozzle is also commonly used for high-
velocity, high-temperature applications such as steam
metering.
Temperature measuring devices
 Thermometer is often used as a general
term for devices for measuring temperature.
 Examples of temperature measuring
devices are described below.
Expansion Thermometers
Resistance Temperature Devices
Thermostats
Thermocouples
Semiconductor Devices
Expansion Thermometers
 Liquid in glass thermometers using mercury were,
the most common direct visual reading thermometer.
Mercury has the advantage of not wetting the glass;.
 The operating range of the mercury thermometer
is from−30°F to+800°F (−35° to+450°C).
 The freezing point of mercury is −38°F (−38°C).
 The toxicity of mercury, ease of breakage, the
introduction of cost-effective, accurate, and easily
read digital thermometers, has brought about the
demise of the mercury thermometer for room and
clinical measurements.
 Other liquid in glass devices operate on the same
principle as the mercury thermometer.
 They have similar properties to mercury (e.g., have a
high linear coefficient of expansion, are clearly visible,
are non wetting), but are nontoxic.
 The liquid in glass thermometers are used to replace
the mercury thermometer, and to extend its operating
range.
 These thermometers are inexpensive, and have good
 accuracy (<0.1°C) and linearity.
 These devices are fragile, and used for local
measurement.
 A bimetallic strip is a relatively
inaccurate, rugged temperature-measuring
device, which is slow to respond and has
hysteresis.
 It is low cost, and therefore is used
extensively in On/Off-types of applications,
or for local analog applications not
requiring high accuracy, but it is not
normally used to give remote analog
indication
 Pressure-spring thermometers are used where
remote indication is required, as opposed to glass
and bimetallic devices, which give readings at the
point of detection.
 The pressure-spring device has a metal bulb made
with a low coefficient of expansion material along
with a long metal narrow bore tube.
 Both contain material with a high coefficient of
expansion.
Resistance Temperature Devices
 RTDs are either a metal film deposited on a form
or are wire-wound resistors, which are then sealed
in a glass-ceramic composite material.
 The electrical resistance of pure metals is positive,
increasing linearly with temperature.
 The RTD can be used to measure temperatures
from−300° to+1,400°F (−170° to+780°C).
 The response time is typically between 0.5 and 5
seconds.
Thermostats
 are a class of metal oxide that typically has a high
negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
 have high sensitivity
 have very nonlinear characteristics
 are low cost, and are manufactured in a wide
range of shapes, sizes, and values.
 are available with the temperature range
extended to 500°C.
Thermocouples
Thermocouple only can be used to measure
temperature differences.
1. The See beck effect states that the voltage
produced in a thermocouple is proportional to
the temperature between the two junctions.
2. The Pettier effect states that if a current
flows through a thermocouple, then one
junction is heated (outputs energy), and the
other junction is cooled
(absorbs energy).
3. The Thompson effect states that when
a current flows in a conductor along
which there is a temperature difference,
heat is produced or absorbed,
Note that See beck voltage is the sum
of the electromotive forces generated by
the Pettier and Thompson effects
Semiconductor Devices
 They have a number of parameters that vary
linearly with temperature.
 They
 are rugged,
 are inexpensive.
Liquid-in-glass thermometres
Functionning method
 Method is based on the expansion of a
liquid with temperature
○ The liquid in the bulb is forced up the
capillary stem
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CHAPTER 6

Flow can be measured as either

 common types of differential pressure flowmeter;

 A differential pressure flow meter consists of

 their limited range (typically 3:1),

 the difference between laminar and turbulent

 The smooth inlet of the nozzle means that it is more expensive

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