Chapter Three

LEARNING AND THEORIES

OF LEARNING
 Definitions of learning
• Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior
occurring as a result of experience or practice.
• The above definition of learning has three important
elements.
1. Learning is a change in behavior for better or worse.
2. It is a change that takes place through practice or
experience. The changes due to growth, maturation, or
injury are not to be considered as learning.
3. Before a change can be regarded as learning, it must be
relatively permanent. Therefore, changes due to
maturation, fatigue, adaptation or sensitivity of the
organism are not considered as learning.
 Characteristics of learning
• If learning is a change in behavior as a result of experience, and
then instruction must include a careful and systematic creation
of those experiences that promote learning.
• This process can be quite complex because, among other
things, an individual's background strongly influences the way
that person learns.
• Yoakman and Simpson have described the following major
important characteristics of learning:
1. Learning is continuous modification of behavior throughout life
2. Learning is pervasive, it reaches into all aspects of human life.
3. Learning involves the whole person, socially, emotionally &
intellectually.
4. Learning is often a change in the organization of
experiences.
5. Learning is responsive to incentives
6. Learning is an active process
7. Learning is purposeful
8. Learning depends on maturation, motivation and practice.
9. Learning is multifaceted
 Principles of learning
• There are important principles that help explaining how
learning occurs effectively. Some of these most important
principles of learning are as follows:
• Individuals learn best when they are physically, mentally,
and emotionally ready to learn.
• Students learn best and retain information longer when
they have meaningful practice and exercise
• Learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant
or satisfying feeling, and that learning is weakened when
associated with an unpleasant feeling.
• Things learned first create a strong impression in the mind
that is difficult to erase.
• Things most recently learned are best remembered.
• The principle of intensity implies that a student will learn
more from the real thing than from a substitute.
• Individuals must have some abilities and skills that may
help them to learn.
• Things freely learned are best learned - the greater the
freedom enjoyed by individuals, the higher the intellectual
and moral advancement.
 Factors Influencing Learning
• Some of the factors that affect learning are the following.
1. Motivation: The learner‘s motivation matters the effectiveness of learning.
The stronger and clearer the motives for learning, the greater are the effort to
learn.
2. Maturation: Neuro-muscular coordination is important for learning a given
task. Example, The child has to be mature before she/he is able to learn.
3. Health condition of the learner: The learner should be in a good health
status to learn. Example- Sensory defects, malnutrition, toxic conditions of the
body, loss of sleep and fatigue hinder effective learning.
4. Psychological wellbeing of the learner: individual‘s psychological states like
worries, fears, feelings of loneliness and inferiority hinders learning. Whereas
self-respect, self-reliance, and self-confidence are necessary for effective
learning.
5. Good working conditions – absence or presence of fresh air, light,
comfortable surroundings, moderate temperature, absence of
distractions like noise and learning aids determine learning
effectiveness.
6. Background experiences: having background experiences affect
effectiveness of learning.
7. Length of the working period: Learning periods should neither be too
short nor too long. Long learning time sets fatigue and reduces
effectiveness in learning.
8. Massed and distributed learning: Learning that spreads across time
with reasonable time gaps brings better results compared with
crammed learning that occurs at once or within short span of time.
 Theories of Learning and their Applications

• Behavioral Theory of Learning

• Behavioral theory of learning believes that learning
occurs as a result of stimulus-response associations.
I. Classical Conditioning Theory of Learning
• The concept of classical conditioning was founded by
a Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov.
• He studied the process of salivary secretion in dog.
• Pavlov identified three steps in the process of salivary
conditioning which can be summarized as follows.
 Basics of Classical Condition

• To demonstrate classical conditioning, we must first identify stimuli and responses.

In addition, you must be well familiarized with the following basic terms of classical
condition:
• Neutral stimulus: A stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring
about the response of interest.
• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular
response without having been learned.
• Unconditioned response (UCR): A response that is natural and needs no training
(e.g., salivation at the smell of food).
• Conditioned stimulus (CS): A once neutral stimulus that has been paired with an
unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the
unconditioned stimulus.
• Conditioned response (CR): A response that, after conditioning, follows a
previously neutral stimulus (e.g., salivation at the ringing of a bell)
 Principles of Classical Condition
• The basic principles of classical conditioning include the role of
stimulus generalization, stimulus discriminations, extinction and
spontaneous recovery.
• Stimulus generalization is a process in which, after a stimulus has
been conditioned to produce a particular response, stimuli that are
similar to the original stimulus begin to produce the same responses.
• For example, a dog conditioned to salivate to a dinner bell (CS) might
also salivate to a door bell, a telephone bell.
• Stimulus discrimination is the process of distinguishing two similar
stimuli; the ability to differentiate between stimuli.
• Example, the dog salivates only in response to the dinner bell instead
of the doorbell or the telephone bell.
• In Pavlov‘s procedure, if a CS is repeatedly presented without
presenting the UCS (meat), the CR will diminish and eventually stop
occurring. This process is called extinction.
• A dog that has learned to salivate to a dinner bell (CS) will eventually
stop doing so unless presentations of the dinner bell are periodically
followed by presentations of the UCS (meat). But extinction only
inhibits the CR, it does not eliminate it.
• Spontaneous recovery is the reemergence of an extinguished
conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further
conditioning.
• For example, suppose you produce extinction of the CR of salivation by
no longer presenting the dog with meat after ringing the dinner bell.
 Operant/Instrumental conditioning
The concept of operant conditioning was developed by an
American psychologist, B. F. Skinner. He was interested in
developing the science of behavior.
Definition: The term operant conditioning refers to the fact
that the learner must operate, or perform a certain
behavior, before receiving a reward or punishment.
Thus, by definition, operant conditioning is a type of
learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed
by reinforcement, or diminished if followed by
punishment.
 Operations in Operant Conditioning

• Shaping:- refers to the judicious use of selective reinforcement to bring

certain desirable changes in the behavior of the organism.
• For a response to be reinforced, it must first occur. But, suppose you to
train a child to use a knife and a fork properly. Such behaviors, and most
others in everyday life, have almost no probability of appearing
spontaneously.
• The operant solution for this is shaping. Shaping is an operant
conditioning procedure in which successive approximations of a desired
response are reinforced.
• In shaping you start by reinforcing a tendency in the right direction. Then
you gradually require responses that are more and more similar to the
final desired response.
• Extinction:- consists of simply withholding the
reinforcement when the appropriate response occurs.
• Reinforcement: - is a stimulus that follows a behavior
and increases the likelihood that the behavior will be
repeated.
• A reinforcer is any event that increases the probability
that the behavior that precedes it will be repeated.
• There are two basic types of reinforcers or reinforcing
stimuli: primary and secondary reinforcers.
• Primary reinforcers: Food, water, light, stroking of the skin,
and a comfortable air temperature are naturally reinforcing
because they satisfy biological needs.
• Primary reinforcers, in general, have the ability to
strengthen a behavior without prior learning.
• Secondary Reinforcers: are conditioned or learned that
include money, status and praise. They reinforce behavior
because of their prior association with primary reinforcing
stimuli.
• Both primary and secondary reinforcers can be positive or
negative.
 a. Positive reinforcement:- is a stimulus which when applied
following an operant response strengthens the probability of that
response.
b. Negative reinforcement:- is any stimulus which when removed
following an operant response, strengthens the probability of that
response.
• The basic principle of negative reinforcement is that
eliminating something aversive can itself be a reinforcer or
a reward.
• For example, if someone nags you all the time to study, but
stops nagging when you comply, your studying is likely to
increase- because you will then avoid the nagging.
 Schedules of reinforcement

A schedule of reinforcement refers to when and how a response is

reinforced.
Reinforcement can be given on a continuous basis or it can be
administered periodically/intermittently.
• Continuous Schedule:- refers to an arrangement of providing
reinforcement after every correct response.
• Partial or Intermittent Schedule:- refers to an arrangement of
providing sometimes reinforcement and withholding the
reinforcement during other times. Partial reinforcement is divided in
to two categories:-
– Ratio Schedule(based on number of responses)
– Interval Schedule( based on passage of time)
1. Fixed-ratio schedules: A fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement occurs after a
fixed number of responses. They produce high rate of responding. Employers
often use fixed ratio schedules to increase productivity.
2. Variable-Ratio Schedule: A variable ratio schedule of reinforcement occurs
after some average number of responses, but the number varies from
reinforcement to reinforcement.
. The responses are more resistant to extinction than when a fixed ratio
schedule is used.
3. Fixed Interval Schedule: A fixed interval schedule of reinforcement occurs
only if a fixed amount of time has passed since the previous reinforcer.
4. Variable Interval Schedule: A variable interval schedule of reinforcement
occurs only if a variable amount of time has passed since the previous
reinforcer.
• Punishment- is a stimulus that weakens the response or makes it
less likely to recur. Punishers can be any aversive (unpleasant)
stimuli that weaken responses or make them unlikely to recur.
• Like reinforcers, punishers can also be primary or secondary. Pain
and extreme heat or cold are inherently punishing and are
therefore known as primary punishers. Criticism, demerits,
catcalls, scolding, fines, and bad grades are common secondary
punishers.
• The positive-negative distinction can also be applied to
punishment. Something unpleasant may occur following some
behavior (positive punishment), or something pleasant may be
removed (negative punishment).
 The Pros and Cons of Punishment
• Immediacy, consistency and intensity matter are important
for effectiveness of punishment.
• Immediacy – When punishment follows immediately after
the behavior to be punished.
• Consistency- when punishment is inconsistent the behavior
being punished is intermittently reinforced and therefore
becomes resistant to extinction.
• Intensity- In general terms severe punishments are more
effective than mild ones. However, there are studies that
indicate that even less intense punishments are effective
provided that they are applied immediately and consistently.
• However, when punishment fails:
• People often administer punishment inappropriately or
mindlessly.
• The recipient of punishment often responds with anxiety, fear
or rage.
• The effectiveness of punishment is often temporary,
depending heavily on the presence of the punishing person or
circumstances
• Most behavior is hard to punish immediately.
• Punishment conveys little information. An action intended to
punish may instead be reinforcing because it brings attention.
 Application of the theory of operant conditioning:

1. Conditioning study behavior: Teaching is the arrangement of

contingencies of reinforcement, which expedite learning.
• Example: For Self-learning of a student teacher should
reinforce student behavior through variety of incentives such
as prize, medal, smile, praise, affectionate patting on the back
or by giving higher marks.
2. Conditioning and classroom behavior: During a learning
process, children can acquire unpleasant experiences. This
unpleasantness becomes conditioned to the teacher, subject
and the classroom and learners begin to dislike the subject and
the teacher.
• Managing Problem Behavior: Operant conditioning is a behavior
therapy technique that shape students behavior. To do this, teachers
should admit positive contingencies like praise, encouragement etc. for
learning. One should not admit negative contingencies. Example
punishment (student will run away from the dull and dreary classes –
escape stimulation.
• Dealing with anxieties through conditioning: Through conditioning,
fear, anxieties, prejudices, attitudes, and perceptual meaning develops.
• Examples of anxieties that are acquired through conditioning are signals
on the road, siren blown during wartime, child receiving painful
injection from a doctor. Anxiety is a generalized fear response.
• To break the habits of fear, a teacher can use desensitization techniques.
• Conditioning group behavior: Conditioning can make an entire group learn and
complete change in behavior with reinforcement. It breaks undesired and unsocial
behavior too.
• Example: Putting questions or telling lie to teachers will make teachers annoyed. In
such circumstances students learn to keep mum in the class. Asking questions,
active participation in class discussion will make the teacher feel happy –
interaction will increase and teaching learning process becomes more effective.
• Conditioning and Cognitive Processes: Reinforcement is given in different form,
for the progress of knowledge and in the feedback form. When response is correct,
positive reinforcement is given.
• Example: A student who stands first in the class in the month of January is
rewarded in the month of December. To overcome this Program instruction is used.
In this subject matter is broken down into steps. Organizing in logical sequence
helps in learning.
 Social Learning Theory (observational learning)
theory
• According to psychologist Albert Bandura, a major part of human
learning consists of observational learning, which is learning by
watching the behavior of another person, or model.
• Because of its reliance on observation of others—a social
phenomenon—the perspective taken by Bandura is often referred to
as a social cognitive approach to learning (Bandura, 1999, 2004).
• social cognitive theorists believe that in human beings, observational
learning cannot be fully understood without taking into account the
thought processes of the learner.
• Many years ago, Albert Bandura and his colleagues showed just how
important observational learning is, especially for children who are
learning the rules of social behavior.
• Bandura mentions four conditions that are necessary before an
individual can successfully model the behavior of someone else:
• Attention: the person must first pay attention to the model.
• Retention: the observer must be able to remember the behavior that
has been observed. One way of increasing this is using the technique of
rehearsal.
• Motor reproduction: the third condition is the ability to replicate the
behavior that the model has just demonstrated.
• Motivation: the final necessary ingredient for modeling to occur is
motivation; learners must want to demonstrate what they have learned.
• Remember that since these four conditions vary among individuals,
different people will reproduce the same behavior differently.
 Educational Implications of Social Learning Theory

• Social learning theory has numerous implications for classroom

use.
1. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other
people.
2. Describing the consequences of behavior can effectively
increase the appropriate behaviors and decrease inappropriate
ones.
3. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new
behaviors. Instead of using shaping, which is operant
conditioning; modeling can provide a faster, more efficient
means for teaching new behavior.
4. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and
take care that they do not model inappropriate behaviors.
5. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models.
This technique is especially important to break down
traditional stereotypes.
6. Students must believe that they are capable of accomplishing
school tasks. Thus it is very important to develop a sense of
self-efficacy for students.
7.Teachers should help students set realistic expectations for
their academic accomplishments.
 Cognitive Learning Theory

Cognitive learning theorists believe that thought processes

have an important effect on learning. Humans often use
mental or cognitive abilities when they interact with their
environment.
 People can manipulate, alter, or change things mentally to
examine possible outcomes before they actually do
anything.
Developed approaches that focus on the unseen mental
processes that occur during learning, rather than
concentrating solely on external stimuli, responses, and
reinforcements.
 Latent Learning

• Evidence for the importance of cognitive processes comes from a

series of animal experiments that revealed a type of cognitive
learning called latent learning.
• „Latent‘ means hidden and thus latent learning is learning that
occurs but is not evident in behavior until later, when conditions
for its appearance are favorable.
•It is said to occur without reinforcement of particular responses
and seems to involve changes in the way information is processed.
• In a classic experiment, Tolman and Honzic (1930) placed three
groups of rats in mazes and observed their behavior each day for
more than two weeks.
• The rats in Group 1 always found food at the end of the maze. Group 2
never found food. Group 3 found no food for ten days but then received
food on the eleventh.
• The Group 1 rats quickly learned to head straight the end of the maze
without going blind alleys, whereas Group 2 rats did not learn to go to
the end. But, Group 3 rats were different.
• For ten days they appeared to follow no particular route. Then, on the
eleventh day they quickly learned to run to the end of the maze. By the
next day, they were doing, as well as group one, which had been
rewarded from the beginning.
• Group three rats had demonstrated latent learning, learning that is not
immediately expressed. A great deal of human learning also remains
latent until circumstances allow or require it to be expressed.
To cognitive theorists, it seemed clear that the unrewarded rats
had learned the layout of the maze early in their explorations;
they just never displayed their latent learning until the
reinforcement was offered.
Instead, those rats seemed to develop a cognitive map of the
maze—a mental representation of spatial locations and
directions.
People, too, develop cognitive maps of their surroundings. For
example, latent learning may permit you to know the location
of a kitchenware store at a local mall you’ve frequently visited,
even though you’ve never entered the store and don’t even
like to cook.
 Insight Learning

• It is a cognitive process whereby we reorganize our perception of a

problem. Its learning to solve a problem by understanding various
parts of the problem. It doesn‘t depend on conditioning of particular
behaviors for its occurrence.
• Sometimes, for example, people even wake up from sleep with a
solution to a problem that they had not been able to solve during the
day.
• In a typical insight situation where a problem is posed, a period
follows during which no apparent progress is made, and then the
solution comes suddenly.
• What has been learned in insight learning can also be applied easily to
other similar situations.
• Human beings who solve a problem insightfully usually
experience a good feeling called an 'aha' experience.
• Wolfgang Kohler studied insight learning in chimpanzees
– Kohler placed chimpanzees in certain situations and watched
them solve the problems
• Ex. Hanging a banana out of the chimpanzee’s reach
– Solution: Monkeys stacked boxes on top of one another to get to
the banana
– Kohler believed that the monkeys could not have come to the
solution without a cognitive understanding of how to solve the
problem.